Sisyphus

In Greek mythology Sisyphus was the king of Ephyra (now Corinth).

He was punished for his self-aggrandizing craftiness and deceitfulness by being forced to roll a boulder up a hill, only to watch it roll back down, repeating this action for eternity. Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He killed travelers and guests, a violation of xenia, which fell under Zeus's domain. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule.

Persephone supervising Sisyphus in the Underworld.

Hades with Cerberus - Pluto Carricci painting

Sisyphus's greatest triumph came at the end of his life, when the god Hades came to claim him personally for the kingdom of the dead. Hades had brought a pair of handcuffs, and Sisyphus expressed such an interest that Hades was persuaded to demonstrate their use - on himself. The lord of the Underworld was kept locked up by Sisyphus, which meant nobody could die. As a punishment for his trickery against the Gods, Sisyphus was made to toil endlessly.

The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for him due to his belief that his cleverness surpassed Zeus.

His hubris ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless effort. Pointless or interminable activities are described today as sisyphean.

Trajan aureus with image of Augustus

In 2016 an Israeli woman hiking in the Galilee discovered an impossibly rare gold coin - only the second such coin known. The coin, dating to the year 107 CE, bears the image of Augustus on the obverse – 'Augustus Deified'. Trajan was Roman emperor from 98 AD until his death in 117 AD.

On the reverse are symbols of the Roman legions next to the name of Trajan. The aureus is part of a series of coins minted by Trajan in tribute to the emperors that preceded him. The only other example known is in the British Museum.

Trajan's Column in Rome.

Roman soldiers were paid a high salary of three gold coins, equivalent to 75 silver coins, each month. Due to their high value, soldiers were unable to buy goods in the market as merchants couldn't provide change.

Trajan lead the empire to attain its maximum territorial extent by the time of his death.

Bronze and silver coins of Trajan are common, but his gold coins are extremely rare.  Declared by the Senate optimus princeps (the best ruler), Trajan was a successful soldier-emperor who presided over the greatest military expansion in Roman history.

Trajan's uniformed army, frieze on Trajan's Column.

Roman Chariot and horses, curse tablets, found in Croatia

In 2019 archaeologists discovered the remains of a chariot from ancient Rome along with two horses. The discovery, estimated to be 1,800 years old, was made in Croatia. The discovery stems from an ancient burial tradition under a mound known as a tumuli. Only those with the highest status and with extreme wealth were buried in this manner.

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Archaeologists discovered golden curse tablets in Roman tombs. These contain inscriptions with magical symbols calling upon both gods and demons to unleash ill-health, punishment, and death upon enemies.

The curse tablets were found in Roman tombs at Viminacium, the ancient capital of the former Roman province of Moesia Superior in Serbia. The territory was under Roman (and later Byzantine) rule for about 600 years, from the 1st century BC until the 6th century. Viminacium occupies a total of about 450 hectares (1,100 acres)

“..so long as someone, whether slave or free, whether man or woman, keeps silent or knows anything about it, they may be accursed in blood, and eyes and every limb and even have all intestines quite eaten away if they have stolen the ring or been privy (to the theft).” Other curses are even more personal ... “May your penis burn away when you make love.”

In Viminacium archaeologists found Christians and pagans buried together, suggesting they lived together in relative harmony and tolerance.

Nymphs of Ancient Greece

For ancient Greeks, every waterway was protected by nymphs. These were ageless young girls who existed even before the Olympic gods — and long before the arrival of mortals. Not all nymphs were immortal. Some died after living for centuries. They existed in a world between mortals and the gods. Nymphs were generally harmless, but not always. For a young man there was a risk of being bewitched and becoming their enslaved lovers. The most famous nymphs were the Pleiades, seven sisters who were immortalized by Zeus when he turned them into the Pleiades constellation. Nymphs were charged with protecting the earth, but their influence went beyond this.

A sea nymph named Thetis was the mother of Achilles. To make him invulnerable she dipped baby Achilles in the river Styx. She held him by one heel, which remained dry and unprotected. He was later killed in the Trojan War by an arrow shot by Paris that struck that spot. This is the origin of the phrase, “to have an Achilles heel.” Two of the best known nymphs were Circe and Kalypso. They helped Odysseus overcome seemingly impossible barriers to return home following the Trojan War.

Sardis - Ancient City of Gold

Sardis was an ancient city best known as the capital of the Lydian Empire. After the fall of the Lydian Empire, it became the capital of the Persian satrapy of Lydia and later a major center of Hellenistic and Byzantine culture.

Croesus, King of Lydia, ruled from 561 to 547 BCE. His wealth was built on gold from the waters of the Pactolus River, which flowed through the capital, Sardis. The Lydians were the first to mint coins of pure gold and silver.

Sardis was conquered by Cyrus the Great around 547 BC. After the Battle of Pteria and Battle of Thymbra, the Persians followed the retreating army back to Sardis and sacked it after a brief siege. After the destruction, Sardis was rebuilt and continued to be an important and prosperous city.

Little of Persian Sardis is in the archaeological record. Sardis was covered over by waves of succeeding generations of invaders, the Greeks, the Romans, and the Byzantines.

Arm of a soldier, killed in the battle between Croesus and Cyrus. He died clutching a slingstone in his hand.

In 334 BC, Sardis was conquered by Alexander the Great. The city was surrendered without a fight.

In 129 BC, Sardis passed to the Romans, under whom it continued its prosperity and political importance as part of the province of Asia.

Sardis began to decline in the 600s AD. It remained part of the Byzantine Empire until 1078 AD. By the 1700s, only two small hamlets existed at the site.

The Lamassu

A lamassu is an Assyrian protective deity, often depicted as having a human's head, a body of an ox or a lion, and bird's wings. The creature was said to symbolize strength, freedom, and intelligence.It

The Lammasu or Lumasi represent the zodiacs, parent-stars or constellations. Large lamassu figures up to 5 metres high are showpieces in Assyrian sculpture, where they are the largest figures known to have been made.

In art, lamassu were depicted as hybrids, either winged bulls or lions with the head of a human male.

The motif of a winged animal with a human head is common to the Near East, first recorded in Ebla around 3000 BC. The lamassu appears frequently in Mesopotamian art. The lamassu and shedu were household protective spirits of the common Babylonian people, becoming associated later as royal protectors, and were placed as sentinels at entrances.

Ancient Helmets

The most vulnerable part of the soldier in battle was his head, so the search for protection by some form of helmet goes back to the earliest times. Helmets were purpose-built to protect the wearer against the specific weapons he faced.

Flattened copper helmet and skull found in the Royal Tomb at Ur

At first, ancient helmets seem to have been pointed at the top, to deflect the downward force. When the ax became popular as a weapon, the shape of the helmet was modified to counter the cutting edge of a downward-falling blade.

Stele of Vultures circa 2500 BC. King Eannatum of Lagash leads a phalanx of soldiers with metal helmets, armed with spears and socketed axes. They are trampling over the bodies of their enemies.

The technology of armor was constantly evolving. By 3,000 BC metal workers were making helmets of copper. 500 years later the Sumerians had bronze helmets, spears and axes.

Egyptian soldier in the act of killing a warrior of the 'Sea Peoples' in the Medinet Habu temple relief

Corinthian helmet

The Helmet of Agighiol is a Geto-Dacian silver helmet dating from the 5th century BC.

Sutton Hoo helmet reconstructed

The Golden Helmet of Coţofeneşti

This 2,600-year-old bronze helmet was discovered in the waters of Haifa Bay, Israel in 2012. When it was made Greek colonies dotted the Mediterranean coast, stretching from the Black Sea to southern France. This warrior was likely one of Egyptian pharaoh Necho II's mercenaries, which he sent through Israel accompanied by a fleet of ancient ships. The pharaoh was involved in military campaigns in the region for nearly a decade, operations in which this warrior and his group likely were involved.

Ancient Greek helmets from the Archaic period (800 BC – 480 BCE). A Corinthian-type. The second is a Illyrian-type. The third is from Agia Paraskevi. All are made of bronze.

The Crosby Garrett Helmet is a copper alloy Roman cavalry helmet dating from the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD.

Bronze Helmet from Ancient Greece, around 460 BC

Roman horseman's helmet.

Gladiator helmet

Greek Spartan Crest Helmet

Spanish morion (helmet)

Helmet of the Chou Dynasty, Emperor Wu Wang tomb complex at Laoyang, circa 1020 BC. Japanese helmet, circa 1590–1640.

Helmet of a Yuan Dynasty officer Chinese chichak-style helmet, Ming Dynasty

Helmet from 7th century Viking boat grave

A myth about Vikings was that they wore horned helmets. There is  no proof that Viking helmets had horns. The reason their helmets didn't have horns was because they would have gotten in the way in battle and would injure the wearer. Real Viking helmets had protective metal down and around the ears and some helmets found in burial mounts had a metal mask in front.

German helmet by famous armorsmith Jörg Seusenhofer ca. 1540

A Greek bronze Corinthian Helmet. Archaic Period. Circa 7th Century B.C. $106,250 A Greek Chalcidian Type. $ 40k.

A Greek Illyrian helmet. circa 550-500 B.C. $27,500

A Greek bronze helmet. Corinthian type. Circa 2nd half of 6th century B.C. USD 205k. Greek hoplite helmet. Macedonian 3rd century BC.

The Chalcidian helmet was an improvement on the earlier Corinthian and Illyrian types. Its lighter design allowed for greater mobility, while its curves around the ears maximized the soldier’s ability to hear. This helmet dates to around 450 and 400 BC. An extremely rare Roman bronze cavalry parade helmet. The Crosby Garrett Helmet. Circa late 1st-2nd century. GBP 2,281,250 in 2010.