The Monster of Troy

In Greek myth, a terrible sea monster suddenly appears on the Trojan coast, where it causes great destruction. To appease the beast, the king of Troy, Laomedon, sends his daughter Hesione as a sacrifice. At the last moment the hero Hercules arrives to slay the monster and rescue the princess.

A menacing creature lurks on an ancient Greek vase in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. The scene is on a Corinthian krater dating to around 550 B.C. It is the oldest illustration of the ancient legend of the Monster of Troy. The vase shows Hesione and Hercules fighting the monster.

Hesione throws rocks from a pile at her feet while Hercules shoots arrows.

Some suggest that the Monster of Troy resembles a Plesiosaur, a Mesozoic marine reptile. A recent suggestion is that it is a monitor lizard skull from an extant species of Varanus. Hercules and the Princess of Troy (1965)

Plesiosaurs are amoung the largest marine apex predators in the fossil record.

Speculatores - Spies of the Roman Empire

Coin of Marcus Antonius celebrating with the legend “Chortis Speculatorum” on the reverse, 31 BC.

Originally utilized as frontline military scouts, elite operatives evolved into the emperor’s spies and political executioners. Speculatores formed an efficient domestic intelligence network that kept the imperial throne secure through surveillance, tracking, and terror. The name speculatores comes from 'speculari', which literally means 'to observe.' Ancient writers used the term speculatores when talking about soldiers on reconnaissance tasks. By the imperial period, it came to be used for a special unit within the Roman Army. Speculatores not only scouted ahead for the Roman army, but also went deep behind enemy lines.

During the reign of Augustus, speculatores were formalized in a new form. They were incorporated into the emperor’s personal administration alongside the Praetorian Guard. They were given new tasks, including escorting prisoners, assisting in arrests, transmitting secret orders, and, in some cases, providing personal security for the emperor and his representatives. Following Augustus’ reforms, a contingent of about ten speculatores was included in each Roman legion, one in each cohort. Speculators were commanded by a trecenarius, the highest-ranking centurion in the elite Praetorian Guard. Under Tiberius, the use of speculatores became increasingly prominent. This was tied to the rise of Lucius Aelius Sejanus as commander of the Praetorian Guard. With the complete trust of a highly paranoid emperor, Sejanus used the speculatores as the world's first secret police.

Tacitus specifically described delatores, professional informers who accused senators and elites of treason. The accusations were made under the maiestas law, which treated traitors as public enemies. Although this law had long existed, under Tiberius it became a new weapon of tyranny. Up to 80 people were accused of treason under Tiberius, 18 were officially executed, and another 10 or so committed suicide before they could be convicted.

Sejanus met an ironic fate. In AD 31, Tiberius suddenly turned against Sejanus following intelligence passed to him by sister-in-law Antonia the Younger. A message was read in the senate condemning Sejanus, who was arrested and sentenced to death. His supporters and family members were exiled. After this episode, Tiberius fell into an even deeper paranoia, and spent the rest of his reign in isolation. Speculatores were not only spies, but also hired assassins in the service of the Roman emperors. Nero used speculatores, especially after the Pisonian Conspiracy of AD 65.

As the Empire grew, so did the need for a more extensive intelligence network. That role gradually fell to frumentarii. This unit was originally made up of soldiers responsible for overseeing the collection and transport of grain for the Roman army. They began their history as a courier service and developed into an imperial spying agency. They also carried out assassinations. The frumentarii were headquartered in the Castra Peregrina ("camp of the strangers") in Rome situated on the Caelian Hill. Their camp commander was the princeps peregrinorum. Ancient sources say their reputation quickly deteriorated. They were disbanded under the reign of Diocletian.

Septimius Severus

A circa A.D. 202 to 210 gold aureus issued by Septimius Severus shows sons Caracalla and Geta.

All appear on horses on the reverse of the aureus, raising their right hands as if receiving an ovation.

The boys were in their late teens and hated each other. Severus took his wife and two sons to wage war against the Caledonians of northern Britain. Severus sent his sons to lead the troops. While in Britain, Severus fell ill and died in A.D. 211, leaving behind two sons who were intent on eliminating one another.

In 193, Septimius Severus was the victor in a civil war that saw five rival emperors try to take power. Severus often depicted his wife, Julia Domna, and his squabbling sons on his coinage. On the reverse of a rare gold aureus issued about the year 200, the two boys face one another, with the inscription “Eternity of the Empire" In December 195, after his father defeated Pescennius Niger, Caracalla, aged nine, was given the rank of Caesar, designating him imperial successor. Coinage in gold, silver, and bronze were issued depicting Caracalla as Caesar. Caracalla caesar, Sestertius circa 196-197.

Valued at one-quarter of a denarius, the sestertius was a substantial brass coin of about 27 grams and was a mainstay of the Roman monetary system. Because small change was in chronic short supply, coins often remained in circulation until they wore flat. Few coins in good condition survived.

Publius Septimius Geta was given the rank of Caesar at the age of nine in 198 CE. The spectactular rare coin marking the event brought over $154,000. By the age of 18, Geta had grown a beard. A very rare sestertius of Geta as Caesar struck at Rome around 208. Geta was not promoted to Augustus (co-ruler) until 209, something he bitterly resented. Severus died on February 4, 211. Severus was deified by the Senate and buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. His remains are lost. Caracalla and Geta were elevated, advised by Julia Domna.

The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again: they withdrew south permanently to Hadrian's Wall.

The palace was divided into two hostile armed camps. Caracalla’s guards stabbed Geta to death December 211. Caracalla persecuted and executed most of Geta's supporters and ordered a damnatio memoriae. It became a capital offence to speak or write Geta's name.

Severus' currency debasement was the largest since the reign of Nero.

Caracalla is recorded as one of Rome's worst rulers. Caracalla introduced the antoninianus in 215, a new denomination that had a disastrous impact on the Roman economy for the rest of the third century.

Elite Scythian gold

A gold necklace placed in an elite Scythian burial more than 2,300 years ago carries a miniature world that archaeologists may have misunderstood for decades. The necklace comes from the North Tomb of the Oguz burial mound, a major Scythian funerary monument of the fourth century BCE. Best assessments have proposed dates around 350–320 BCE. A new study argues that the winged figures hanging from the necklace are women with the bodies of bees. At the center of the sits another unexpected figure: a tiny female head wearing a Phrygian cap, a detail that may identify her as an Amazon.

The craftsmanship matches the social/royal status of the grave. The necklace contains 84 beads made by soldering together two halves.

Nero's Domus Aurea

The Domus Aurea (Latin, 'Golden House') was a vast complex built by Nero in the heart of ancient Rome after the great fire in 64 AD.

Spanning the Palatine, Esquiline, and Caelian hills, it featured gold-leaf ceilings, artificial lakes, and an octagonal dining room with a rotating dome. Nero micro-managed details. Nero's Domus Aurea is estimated to cost 50 million sesterces to build in 68 AD. 50 million sesterces in 68 AD was a mind-boggling sum. It would be equivalent to billions in modern purchasing power.

Nero placed mosaics, previously restricted to floors, in the vaulted ceilings. The Golden House was a severe embarrassment to Nero’s successors. It was stripped of its marble, its jewels and its ivory within a decade. Soon after Nero’s death, the palace and grounds were filled with earth and built over: the Baths of Titus were already being built over part of the site in 79 AD.

At the entrance, Nero placed his Colossus. Roughly 35m tall and made of bronze, The Colossus of Nero depicted the emperor as the sun god Sol, crowned with rays of light. Moved and modified by subsequent emperors, only the brick and concrete foundations of the Colossus survive. The bronze was melted down.

The palace’s grounds included a large artificial lake (the stagnum). After Nero's death, Flavian emperors drained the lake and built the Colosseum over it.

The monument left an enduring legacy: the Flavian Amphitheatre situated next to it was nicknamed the Colosseum due to its proximity to the statue.

The Domus Aurea complex covered parts of the slopes of the Palatine, Esquiline, Oppian and Caelian hills. Its size can only be approximated, as much of it has never been excavated. Some scholars place it at over 300 acres. In 2019 they found a secret, underground room inside Nero’s palace.

Decline of Roman coinage

The decline of Roman coinage was driven by currency debasement.

Emperors progressively reduced the precious metal content in coins. This brought severe inflation and the erosion of trust as people recognized the lower intrinsic value of the coin. This weakened the entire Roman economic order. The debasement of coinage was a major contributor to Rome's decline and fall. For the first 90 years of the Roman Empire the purity of Rome’s silver coinage was 98% or higher. That standard was kept by emperors Augustus, Tiberius (14-37), Caligula (37-41) and Claudius (41-54), and the first decade of Nero's reign (54-68). The Great Fire of Rome in 64 marked the start of a debasement that brought Rome’s silver coinage to unfathomable depths.

Nero took the easiest path to raising cash – re-coining old money. Nero's reformed coinage was created by recycling older, purer silver, with Republican denarii targeted for reminting. Nero reduced the weight of the silver denarius from 1/84th of a Roman pound to 1/96th, lowering its silver content from 98% to 93%.

A pre-reform denarius of Nero, about 98% pure silver.

At the same time the weight of the denarius fell 12.5%, further reducing silver content. Nero reduced the weight of aurei from 7.8 g to 7.3 g. Post-reform denarius of Nero, about 93% silver.

Nero was overthrown in 68, giving rise to the Year of Four Emperors in 69. Vespasian (69-79), reduced the purity of the denarius to about 90%.

In 107 Trajan (98-117) reduced the purity of the denarius to 88%. From there the purity slid until 148, when Antoninus Pius (138-161) removed 5%. The denarius was now about 84% or 83% pure. The denarius reached about 71% purity near the end of the reign of Commodus (177-192) The aureus was now 7.15 to 7.30 gm.

Under Septimius Severus (193-211) the purity of the denarius dropped to about 57%. Over the next four decades, the purity of imperial silver coinage continued to slide, dropping steadily until it had reached about 41% purity under Trajan Decius (249-251). Under Trebonianus Gallus (251-253) and Aemilian (253), it sank to about 35% pure. By 268, the double-denarius had slid to a silver content of 5% or less – in some cases dropping to about 2.5%. The "silver" coin was effectively copper with a thin, easily worn-off plating.

Domitian and Domitia

Today, September 14, 81 AD Domitian became Emperor of the Roman Empire upon the death of his brother Titus. Titus died of a sudden fever, although Domitian is suspected by writers of poisoning him. Domitian was Roman emperor from 81 to 96.

The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus was the last member of the Flavian dynasty. Emperor Domitian and Empress Domitia Longina formed one of the most tumultuous power couples in ancient Rome. Their marriage, political alliance, and Domitian's reign culminated in palace intrigue, betrayal, and death. Aureus features Emperor Domitian on the obverse and his wife, Domitia Longina, on the reverse. It was minted in Rome around 82–83 AD.

Domitia, the daughter of general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, was forced to divorce her first husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia, to marry Domitian in AD 70. In AD 83, Domitian banished Domitia over an alleged affair with the actor Paris. Domitian soon brought Domitia back to Rome and restored her status as Empress. Domitian grew increasingly paranoid and began executing members of his inner circle. Domitia was tipped off that her own name was on his execution list. To save herself, she is widely believed to have played an active role in the palace conspiracy that resulted in his murder.

Domitian was assassinated on September 18, 96 AD, at the age of 44. He was stabbed to death in his palace by a group of court officials, servants, and the Praetorian prefects. The relieved senate rejoiced at his death and immediately subjected him to a damnatio memoriae. He was succeeded the same day by his advisor Nerva. Domitia retired and died around 130 AD at age 77. Domitia. Augusta, AD 82-96. Denarius (silver, 3.57 gm), Rome, 82-83. Estimate CHF 10,000. Sold For CHF 19,500 in 2010. Due to her controversial life and later role in the plot against Domitian, Domitia coins became rare. Surviving coins in good condition are highly valued with most in museums.

The Circus Maximus

In AD 121, on the anniversary of Rome's founding, Hadrian inaugurated new games and chariot races at the Circus Maximus. A rare aureus commemorates the event, providing an absolute date of 874 years since the founding of Rome.

The coin depicts the Genius of the Circus Maximus holding a chariot wheel while reclining around the three-pointed metae (the turning posts that mark either end of the spina) of the Circus Maximus, accompanied by the accompanying legend: ANN. DCCCLXXIIII NAT. VRB. P. CIR. CON. ann(is) dccclxxiiii nat(ali) urb(is) P(rimum) cir(censes) con(stituti) Year 874 Since the Birth of the City; First Circus Games Established.

The crucible of Roman chariot racing was the Circo Massimo, or Circus Maximus. Chariot racing was fast and dangerous. According to the historian Livy, the inaugural events and wooden seating were instituted by Tarquinius Priscus in the sixth century BC. Julius Caesar gave the Circus Maximus its iconic shape in the first century BC by greatly extending the racing track and seating capacity.

At its largest, the Circus Maximus reached a length of 621 metres and 190 metres in width. It had three tiers of seating, with the lowest, nearest the action, reserved for the elite. It's said the Circus Maximus could accommodate over 100,000 spectators. Located in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills, the arena had many additions over the centuries and major rebuilds. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus called it “one of the most beautiful” structures in Rome.

Races began when the sponsor dropped his napkin and ended seven laps later. A race consisted of 13 turns of the spina, totalling seven laps of the Circus Maximus, run counterclockwise. Those who didn't get maimed or killed and finished in the top three won prizes. Crashes were called naufragia ('shipwreck'). Drivers who became entangled in a crash risked being trampled or dragged along the track by their horses. Most commonly raced were four-horse chariots, known as quadrigae. Drivers (aurigae) wrapped the reins around their waists to steer with weight shifts, holding a knife (falx) to cut themselves free if needed. The two middle horses provided the primary pulling power, while the outer horses were steered.

Life expectancy of the highly paid aurigae was short.

Caracalla. AD 198-217. AV Aureus Rome mint. Struck AD 213. Near EF. Extremely rare with 4 known and an important architectural type. Est $75,000. Sold for $140,000.

Trajan's Circus Maximus Sestertius. (c. 103–111 AD) Viewed from the nearby Forum Boarium, the coin offers rich detail.