As rich as Croesus

The phrase "rich as Croesus" is a famous idiom that describes someone who is extremely wealthy. It refers to the legendary King Croesus of Lydia, who was known for his immense wealth and extravagant lifestyle. His wealth came from the River Pactolus in which the King Midas washed his hands to rid himself of the 'Midas Touch'. Croesus is credited with issuing the first true gold and silver coins with a standardized purity for general circulation.

Lydia was a hugely rich and powerful state when Kroisos became king about 561 BCE. According to Herodotus, Kroisos donated 4.5 tons of gold for construction of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. The Latin form of Kroisos’ name is used today. Kroisos inherited a coinage system based upon the use of electrum. The most common examples of early Lydian coins are electrum trites (one-third staters) that weigh about 4.7 grams. The coins were first struck during the reign of Kroisos’ father, Alyattes (c. 618 – 561 BCE). Kroisos continued to strike them during the early years of his own reign.

Kroisos launched his own coinage about 550 BCE by minting nearly pure gold staters and nearly pure silver staters, each weighing around 10.7 grams. The Prototype stater is extremely rare, with about a dozen known. The example shown sold for $150k against a $50k estimate in January 2012.

Kroisos struck gold coins under two different weight standards after the Prototype issue. His first series were “Heavy Standard” weighing about 10.7 g. Kroisos replaced the Heavy Standard gold coins with a series of Light Standard gold coins, based upon a weight of 8.05 g. Silver equivalents are known for each denomination of Kroisos’ gold coinage.

Scholars argue that the gold standard of Croesus was introduced in stages, designed to recall the circulating electrum staters. Once a sufficient number had been recalled, the new light stater appeared. Though the light stater was produced for a longer period than the heavy stater, the light stater is actually the rarer coin. This NGC Gem MS light stater sold in April 2018 for $180k.

Hadrian

Hadrian was declared Emperor of Rome on this date September 22, 117. Publius Aelius Hadrianus (AD 76–138) was born in Rome on 24 January AD 76. His family – the Aelii – were from ltalica in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica (Seville in modern-day Spain). Hadrian’s father died when he was ten years old and he became the ward of his father’s cousin, the future emperor Trajan. Hadrian was the third of the Five Good Emperors and reigned during the apex of Roman power. Hadrian married, through arrangement, Vibia Sabina, grandniece of the ruling emperor, Trajan, and his second cousin once removed. His marriage was unhappy and childless. Hadrian's ascension was controversial as Trajan hadn't chosen a successor until he was on his deathbed. Trajan’s respected wife Plotina sent a letter to the Senate declaring Hadrian as the new heir. It was only after the appointment that the Senate was informed Trajan had died. With the army recognizing Hadrian as emperor, the Roman senate accepted his rule. Four senators who opposed his appointment were executed.

Hadrian had a successful reign. He completed many building projects, including the Vallum Aelium. (Hadrian’s Wall) Hadrian gained extensive military experience as a legatus during the conquests of Dacia and later Parthia. Among Trajan’s closest allies he also held the important offices of the Roman state, culminating in serving as consul. Hadrian was a military expert, but his reign saw little conflict. Hadrian's last years were marred by chronic illness. Hadrian died of heart disease at Baiae on 10 July AD 138.

Hadrian's Wall is one of Britain's major tourist attractions and a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Hadrian selected Lucius Aelius Caesar to succeed him, but Aelius died suddenly. As an alternative Hadrian appointed Antoninus Pius with the provision that he would then choose Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his successors. Pius agreed, and the Golden Age of Rome continued. Hadrian kept a beard, and all his coins show him bearded. Some accounts suggest it hid his facial battle scars.

Archaeologists at the ancient city of Kibyra in southwestern Türkiye uncovered the remains of monumental marble statues depicting Roman Emperor Hadrian and his wife, Empress Sabina. Hadrian’s statue rose to a height of 2.14 meters (7 feet). The large marble figures once stood impressively above Kibyra’s Monumental City Entrance Gate. The rare sculptures date to around AD 130.

Gladiators - Heroes of the Colosseum

Under Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD), games were allowed only during a few specific days of the year.

An exhibition called "Gladiators - Heroes of the Colosseum" examined the lives of gladiators. The first documented gladiator fights took place in Rome in 264 BC. Descendants of a deceased citizen had three pairs of slaves compete against each other in the honor of the departed. Typically, the fight would happen in a marketplace. These private battles of nobility became increasingly popular among citizens of ancient Rome.

Gladiators were not always prisoners or slaves. Gladiator schools (ludi - singular: ludus) ensured a supply of highly trained fighters. Many free Roman citizens also joined for fame, money, and glory. The games offered a chance for the most successful warriors to earn redemption, wealth and freedom. The typical schedule of a fight day started around noon, with executions of criminals sentenced to death. Afterward, circus acts would sometimes take the stage. After a few additional fights, the gladiators were presented as the main act. Women also fought against each other. This was officially banned in the year 200.

A gladiator was most often a slave, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death. The average age of those killed in the arena was around 28. Few gladiators survived more than ten matches. Gladiatorial combat rapidly became an essential feature of social life in the Roman world. Its popularity led to ever more lavish and costly games. The games lasted for nearly a thousand years, peaking between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD. The games declined during the early 5th century after the adoption of Christianity.

The person who presided over the games was called the editor. He could be the emperor, a senator, or other political figure and made the final decision about the fate of the gladiators in the arena. To make sure the loser wasn’t pretending to be dead, an attendant dressed as Mercury would touch him with a hot iron wand. If still alive, another attendant, dressed as Charon, would kill him with a mallet.

If a gladiator repeatedly survived the arena and lived long enough to retire, they were given a symbolic wooden training sword, or rudis, as a token of their freedom. Even after winning freedom, the lucrative life of a gladiator appealed: rudiarii were gladiators who had earned their freedom but chose to remain fighting in the arena.

Gladius, an early ancient Roman sword

There were many types of gladiators and each had different weapons. It was usual to pair off combatants with widely different, but more or less equivalent, equipment. Studies have shown that gladiators fought to strict rules and barefooted. During combat musicians performed and altered tempo to match that of the combat. From left, a disarmed and surrendering retiarius and his secutor opponent, a thraex and murmillo, a hoplhus and murmillo (who is signalling his surrender), and the referee.

Roman Gladiator Dagger

The quadrens was a specialized close-quarter weapon used by the Roman net-fighter, or retiarius.

Roman soldiers were taught to deploy the gladius horizontally, piercing the enemy's ribs and penetrating vital organs.

Roman iron gladiator trident.

Gladiator Arm Guard

Greaves and dagger discovered at Pompeii's gladiator barracks.

Helmet of a murmillo.

Vivid fresco depicting gladiators from Pompeii

A vivid fresco depicting a gladiator standing victorious as his wounded opponent gushes blood was discovered in Pompeii in 2019.

This formal gesture of submission was known as 'ad digitum'.

A 'murmillo' holds up his shield in his left hand, as he grips his short sword in the right. A murmillo was a slow, heavily armored Roman gladiator who fought with a large rectangular shield and a short sword, named after the Greek word for a type of fish due to his distinctive helmet. On the ground next to him lies the shield of the defeated 'thraex', who was wounded and is bleeding. The thraex is gesturing with his hand, probably asking for mercy. When a gladiator asked for mercy they raised a single finger, usually the index finger of their left hand.

A Thraex, or Thracian, was equipped with a distinctive Thracian-style weapon and armor, including a small rectangular shield called a parmula and a curved short sword known as a sica. They also wore leg greaves. Gladiators fought to strict rules and barefoot.

Vercingetorix

On September 21, 46 BC Julius Caesar celebrated a triumphal procession in Rome over Gaul, with leader of the Gauls Vercingetorix paraded in chains.

Vercingetorix (c. 82 BC – 46 BC) was a king and chieftain of the Arverni tribe; he united the Gauls in a revolt against Roman forces during the last phase of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars. Vercingetorix came to power in 52 BC. He established an alliance with other Gallic tribes, took command of combined forces, and led them in the Celts' revolt against the Romans. He won the Battle of Gergovia against Julius Caesar in which several thousand Romans and allies died and Caesar's Roman legions withdrew.

Vercingetorix is considered the first national hero of France and was greatly admired in his time, even by his enemies.

Vercingetorix waged the world's first guerilla war. Vercingetorix made swift strikes on the Romans and their supply lines, and then disappeared into the surrounding landscape. There could be no victory for the Romans because there was no enemy for them to engage. The Gauls struck and vanished.

All hope was lost behind the walls in Alesia. Vercingetorix surrendered himself, taking the Romans by surprise. Caesar had him taken away in chains and sent to Rome. The defenders of Alesia were massacred, sold as slaves, or given as slaves to soldiers as spoils. Vercingetorix was exhibited in Caesar's triumph; then he was executed.

Two coins are a fitting set of the two most important generals of the Gallic Wars. They are both Roman Republican silver denarii minted in the 40s BC. Julius Caesar bears his portrait and the title Dictator for Life. The coin was struck February-March 44 BC, the last before his famous demise. The coin depicting Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix was struck by Caesar’s political ally L. Hostilius Saserna in 48 BC, while the Roman general was still vying for control of the Republic with Pompey Magnus.

Unique ancients

Sicily, Aitna (Catania) Silver tetradrachm c. 465 BCE obverse: bearded Silenus right AITNA ION, “of the people of Aitna.”, beetle below, reverse Zeus enthroned.

The value of ancient coins is determined by three factors other than condition: historical interest, eye appeal, and rarity. Any unique coin of Alexander the Great or other famous figure would be important no matter how battered and worn. But a unique provincial copper of an obscure ruler would likely carry a modest price.

Alexander III of Macedon, double daric, Mobile mint with Alexander’s Army in India, after 326 BCE 16.75 grams.

In 1922 workmen in France unearthed a hoard of gold and silver buried c. 315 CE. Buried was a unique 10-aureus (52.88 gram) gold medallion of Constantius I, father of Constantine the Great. It commemorates his defeat of the British usurper Allectus in 296 CE.

A gold stater of Abydos, issued around 330 BCE. Abydos was located at the narrow crossing point of the Hellespont. Alexander the Great established a mint at Abydos that struck a very few gold staters c. 330 BCE.

Gold aureus of Antoninus Pius

Born on September 20 86 AD, Antoninus Pius was the 15th Emperor of Rome. He was the fourth of the “five good emperors”

Antoninus Pius, also known as Antoninus, was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was one of the Five Good Emperors. About A.D. 141 Antoninus Pius ordered the Roman frontier be pushed northward. A gold aureus alludes to his victory in Britain. The coin was struck circa 143 to 144 A.D., at the Rome Mint. The campaign was successful, establishing the 39-mile-long Antonine Wall some 99 miles north of Hadrian’s wall. The Senate acclaimed Antoninus as Imperator in A.D. 143 for the second time. This coin marks that event, with its depiction of winged Victory holding a trophy symbolizing military success. The aureus made $7,000.

Marcus Antonius and Marcus Antonius Antyllus

The Triumvirs. Marcus Antonius and Marcus Antonius Antyllus. Antyllus was Anthony's oldest son from Fulvia. He was heir apparent to Antony’s interests. It became his death sentence after the downfall of his father. Antyllus was the only child of Marcus Antonius to be executed immediately, while his siblings joined the household of Octavia. Greek tutor Theodorus betrayed the boy’s hiding place to Octavian's soldiers, who dragged Antyllus away and beheaded him. Theodorus stole a precious jewel that Antyllus wore around his neck and sewed it into his belt. Although he initially denied the theft, the crime was discovered, and Octavian ordered Theodorus to be crucified.