Hegra

In the desert north of AlUla in Saudi Arabia, the archeological site of Hegra (Mada'in Saleh) has been left nearly undisturbed for almost 2,000 years. Once a thriving international trade hub, the rock-cut constructions at Hegra look similar to its famous sister site of Petra, a few hundred miles to the north in Jordan. Hegra was the second city of the mysterious Nabataean kingdom. Nabataeans were desert-dwelling nomads turned merchants, controlling the incense and spice trade routes through Arabia and Jordan to the Mediterranean, Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia. Caravans laden with fragrant peppercorn, ginger root, sugar and cotton passed through Hegra, a provincial city on the kingdom’s southern frontier.

Nabataeans prospered from the 4th century B.C. until the 1st century A.D., when the expanding Roman Empire rose. Like Petra, Hegra is a metropolis turned necropolis: most of the remaining structures that can be seen today are tombs, with much of the city still buried.

Joining the ancient Roman army

The Roman army spanned 1,200 years from 753 BCE to 476 CE, evolving from clan war-bands into a professional global power. In the Late Republic (Julius Caesar) the army numbered 30 to 40 legions. (roughly 150,000 to 200,000 men plus allies) Between 400,000 to 500,000 soldiers served at its peak during the mid-2nd century AD under emperors like Trajan and Hadrian.

Joining the ancient Roman army during the Empire period required passing a strict physical exam, proving citizenship, and committing to 25 years of service. Legionaries had to be Roman citizens, though non-citizens could join the auxiliaries to earn citizenship. Recruits were ideally young men between 16 and 23 years old, though the legal limit stretched up to age 35. There were 4 stages. The inspection (probatio): officials inspected the recruit's health, posture, and physical strength to ensure they could handle heavy armor and weapons.

The interview involved officers checking documents, asking about background and character, and sometimes testing literacy or practical skills. The oath (sacramentum): recruits swore an absolute oath of loyalty to the Emperor and then received a signing bonus. Basic training included about four months of grueling boot camp, long marches, and weapon drills. In the late Republic reforms standardized service to 16 years of active duty. In the Roman Empire Augustus initially set the term at 16 active years plus 4 in reserve, which later expanded to 20 years of active duty and 5 years of reserve duty. The first 20 years involved rigorous soldiering, border patrols, or frontline combat. The final 5 years typically involved reserve status or lighter operational tasks. (sub vexillo) Retirement (honesta missio) came after completing a full term, after which veterans received an honorable discharge with a valuable retirement bonus of land or cash. Roman legionaries faced strict military discipline, with offenses ranging from minor daily infractions to breaches of duty and treason. Desertion (desertio / emansio) was punished by the fustuarium (a fatal beating or stoning by comrades) or execution. Sleeping on guard duty or theft was also subject to the fustuarium or severe beatings.

Disobedience, sloppiness, or minor offenses were handled by centurions using their vitis (a vinewood staff) to strike the soldier on the spot. (castigatio) Demotion, loss of privileges and a stay in a jail cell were the most common forms of punishment for even small indiscretions.
See ---- Roman Vitis

Roman Emperor Nerva

Nerva, started the period known as the "Five Good Emperors". He brought stability to the empire precisely when it was needed.

Nerva was Roman emperor from 96 to 98. Nerva became emperor at age 66 after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero. On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy involving the Praetorian Guard. On the same day, Nerva was declared emperor by the Roman Senate. A gold aureus of Nerva reflects the delicate balance of power in ancient Rome at the time. The circa A.D. 97 gold coin features a portrait of Nerva on the obverse, with clasped hands holding a legionary eagle set upon a prow on the reverse. Nerva gold is rare and expensive.

Nerva’s reign was greatly assisted by his predecessor’s decision to increase wages for soldiers from 225 denarii to 300 denarii, annually. In addition, the coins used to pay the wages were of increased weight and purity compared to previous coins, so the payout was even better.

Nerva's reign was marred by financial difficulties and his inability to assert full control over the Roman army. A revolt by the Praetorian Guard in October 97 forced him to adopt an heir. Nerva adopted Trajan, a young and popular general, as his successor.

Nerva died of natural causes shortly after and was succeeded by Trajan.

Gold leaf from Napoleon's crown makes €625,000

A golden laurel leaf from Napoleon's crown went under the hammer in 2017. Napoleon crowned himself emperor at the Notre Dame cathedral in Paris in 1804.

He famously took the Roman-style laurel wreath and put it on his own head, instead of letting Pope Pius VII do the honors. At a fitting for the crown leading up to the spectacular event, Napoleon had complained that it was too heavy. So goldsmith Martin-Guillaume Biennais took six leaves out of the crown, later giving one to each of his six daughters. The original wreath was melted down after Napoleon's fall in the wake of the Battle of Waterloo. The crown, modelled on the one worn by Roman caesars, is the centerpiece of Jacques-Louis David's monumental painting, "The Coronation of Napoleon" at the Louvre.

The crown Napoleon wore at his coronation had 44 large gold laurel leaves and 12 smaller ones.

Napoleon's crown cost 8,000 francs, with the box it was stored in a further 1,300 francs.

Defaced Roman coins

During the Roman Empire, coins were often defaced, mostly between the 1st and the 3rd centuries AD. It was prevalent in the imperial provinces, where many cities issued bronze coins for local circulation.

Julius Caesar, as Dictator (49-44 BCE). AR denarius. NGC Choice XF 5/5 – 2/5, graffiti.

Ancient coins were often deliberately defaced as an expression of contempt for the subject depicted or name inscribed. Coins mistreated in this way have an appeal for some collectors. Gaius Julius Caesar was beloved by his troops and Rome’s common people, but he was hated by many of the elite. Lifetime portrait coins of Julius Caesar have been in high demand for almost 2 centuries. A deep scratch is an acceptable defect.

Coins found at temples, shrines, or sacred springs were frequently slashed, bent, notched, or broken before being thrown in as offerings to deities. Foreign or worn coins traveling across borders or into military camps received countermarks to confirm their value or authorize their use locally. This collection of 39 countermarked Roman Imperial and Provincial bronze coins in fair to fine condition made $6,000 on a $1,000 estimate.

When the reclusive and paranoid Tiberius died at the age of 78, most Romans greeted the accession of his great-nephew Gaius joyfully. That didn't last long. Two years after Caligula's death, the Senate voted that all bronze coins bearing his image be melted down, but the chronic shortage of small change in the Roman economy meant this wasn't enforced. Some coins of Caligula survived, but rarely with his name or image intact. Gaius (Caligula). 37-41 CE. Æ Sestertius. Rome mint. Struck 37-38 CE.

Nero. 54-68 CE. Æ Sestertius. Rome mint. Struck circa 66 CE. Nero is infamous for his debauchery and was deeply unpopular with the nobility and political class, which led to his downfall.

Domitian and Domitia were a Roman imperial couple. Married in 70 AD, they served as Emperor and Empress of the Flavian dynasty from 81 AD until Domitian’s assassination in 96 AD. Domitian was a cruel and ruthless autocrat, recorded as one of Rome's worst emperors.

Sword of Damocles

The 'Sword of Damocles' is a famous ancient metaphor used to describe the always present danger that accompanies power.

Damocles is a character who appears in a anecdote referred to as "the Sword of Damocles." This refers to the imminent peril faced by those in positions of power. Damocles was a courtier in the court of Dionysius II of Syracuse, a 4th-century BC ruler. Damocles was pandering to Dionysius, and exclaimed to him that Dionysius was truly fortunate as a great man of power and authority. In response, Dionysius offered to switch places with Damocles for one day. Damocles eagerly accepted the king's proposal. Dionysius, who had many enemies, had a huge sword above the throne, held at the pommel only by a single hair of a horse's tail. Dionysius did this to evoke the sense of what it's like to be king: though having fortune, always having to watch in fear and anxiety against dangers that might try to take it away.

Damocles finally begged the king that he be allowed to depart because he no longer wanted to be so fortunate, realizing that with great fortune and power also comes great danger.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Mausolus ruled Caria, a region on the southwest coast of modern Turkey, in the 4th century BC. He was a satrap under the Persian Empire, but he operated as an independent king. He built his capital at Halicarnassus into a showpiece city. He was married to his own sister, Artemisia. When Mausolus died in 353 BC, writers say she was so consumed by grief that she mixed his ashes into her drink and swallowed them. When the island of Rhodes saw a grieving widow on the throne they sent a fleet to take her city. Artemisia hid her ships, let the Rhodians land, and captured their fleet. She sailed the Rhodian ships back to Rhodes, decorated with victory wreaths. Rhodes thought their own navy was coming home in triumph and let them enter. She took the island and put up a statue of herself in Rhodes celebrating the conquest. She died about two years after her husband, before the tomb was finished. The Mausoleum was about 45m (148 ft) in height, with the four sides adorned with sculptural reliefs, each created by one of four Greek sculptors: Leochares of Athens, Bryaxis of Halicarnassus, Scopas of Paros, and Timotheus of Epidaurus. The Mausoleum contained 400 freestanding sculptures.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and stood for over 1,500 years. Earthquakes brought it down. In the 1400s and 1500s, crusader knights hauled away its stones to build a castle that still stands in Bodrum. The word mausoleum is used today for any above-ground tomb.

Elephants on ancient coins

Elephants have a long history of interaction with humans. The Indus Valley civilization used captive Asian elephants as early as 2000 BCE for logging, transportation and ceremonial processions.

Karshapana, or punch-marked silver coinage of India, dates from 500 BCE to ca. 300

India provides the earliest appearance of elephants on coins. Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.), Silver dekadrachm, 5 shekels, 40.08g. Minted at Babylon, c. 327 B.C. Alexander, lance in hand and on Bucephalus, charges an elephant. This may have been an actual event during the Battle of the Hydaspes (326 BCE). Among the finest of 8 known. $300k.

African elephants appear on the reverse of rare Carthaginian coins struck in Spain from about 220 to 206 BCE, probably to pay mercenaries. The best-known elephant images on coins appears on a massive issue of Roman denarii in the name of Julius Caesar. Based on the multitude of different dies, the size of this issue is estimated at 22.5 million.

This coin sold in 2013 for $980.

In 248 CE, Rome observed it's 1000th anniversary. Emperor Philip I ('the Arab') celebrated with elaborate gladiatorial games. Exotic animals, including elephants, were brought from every corner of the empire. The games were commemorated on his coins, which survive in large numbers.

Maturing portraits of Nero

A silver cistophorus (three denarius) of 50-51 CE, portrays Nero at 13, before he became emperor. Nero, as Caesar, AR Denarius. 51-54 AD. On the reverse sacral implements of the different priests. Nero was around 18 in 54 AD.

Maturing portraits on Roman coins is rare. Few emperors began their reigns young and ruled long enough that aging can be observed in their coinage. Nero evolved dramatically from a slender youth to a heavy-set autocrat, charting his psychological shift and physical decline from age 12 to 30. Nero was the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, sister of Caligula. Due to his maternal family line, Nero was the great-great-grandson of  Augustus. This helped him to legitimate his position as emperor. Nero became emperor in 50 CE at age 16 due to the influence of his mother over Claudius.

Nero was 20 when this portrait appeared on silver denarii of 56-57 CE. Nero was 22 or 23 on a tetradrachm struck 59-60 CE. Nero was 25 in 62-63 CE.

Nero is infamous for brutally debasing currency and severely taxing to fund his palace, the Domus Aurea.

A menacing portrait appeared on a silver tetradrachm of 65-66 CE.

Nero is also famous for persecuting Christians and blaming them for the great fire of 64 AD. The great fire cleared the way for Nero's Domus Aurea on the Oppian Hill in the heart of ancient Rome.

This coin was struck within a year of his death in 68. He was about 30.

Artifact from Gallic Wars

An archaeological artifact from eastern France is a 2,070 year-old human bone pierced by an iron Roman spearhead. It's from the Gallic Wars. The spearhead pierced straight through the doomed warrior's bone and remained lodged there. More than 2,000 years later, archaeologists discovered the injury exactly as it occurred, preserving a brutal split-second of ancient combat. The Roman-Gallic Wars were often fought at close range with spears, swords, and shields, making severe skeletal injuries on the dead common.

Rarities at Kunker

Agrippina was one of the most influential women of the early Roman Empire. She was the offspring of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the victor of Actium, and Julia, daughter of Augustus. The husband chosen for her was Germanicus, who was supposed to become Augustus’ successor. They had nine children, including future Emperor Caligula. Agrippina was exiled in 29 AD and starved herself to death on Pandataria in 33 AD. Very fine+. Estimate: 25,000 euros. Hammer price: 120,000 euros.

Most aurei of Commodus are not really rare. Commodus as Hercules Romanus are extremely rare in top condition. Künker offered such a rarity and the result was 170,000 euros.

An aureus of Postumus. He came from Gaul and established his center of power in Cologne. Coins of Postumus are among the most beautiful pieces known from the time of the Barracks Emperors. The coin features Postumus and Heracles on the obverse. The reverse shows Victoria and Felicitas, representing Postumus’ military successes. The coin made 190,000 euro in part because of its pedigree. It's ownership can reliably be traced back to 1888.

Aureui of Pescennius Niger, 193-194, are impossibly rare in any condition. When they are extremely fine/very fine+ they will find many interested collectors. Estimate: 75,000 euros. Hammer price: 220,000 euros.

Claudius

Bust of Claudius at the Naples National Archaeological Museum

Claudius (10 BC – AD 54) was Roman emperor from AD 41 to 54. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul, the first (and until Trajan, only) Roman emperor to be born outside Italy. His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus' sister, and he was the great-great grandnephew of Gaius Julius Caesar. He was afflicted with a limp and slight deafness due to sickness as a child, causing his family to ostracize him. Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of other nobles during the many purges of Tiberius and Caligula. He wasn't seen as a serious threat. Claudius. AV Aureus. Rome mint. Struck AD 46-47. Good VF. Est $7500, sold for $20,000.

Claudius, 41–54 aureus, 41-42, AV 7.69 gm. Extremely fine. 60'000 CHF.

His survival led to his being declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination. He was an effective leader, remembered for initiating the successful conquest of Britain in 43 AD.

Obverse of this coin (50 CE–54 CE) portrays Claudius while the reverse portrays his wife Agrippina the Younger. Agrippina the Younger was Roman empress from AD 49 to 54, the fourth wife and niece of emperor Claudius, and the mother of Nero. Some blame her endless machinations for the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a broad-based conspiracy involving the Praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea and several senators. There is no evidence that Claudius had a hand in the assassination plot. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and declared him princeps. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in again and, in return, Claudius pardoned virtually all the assassins. He ruled well and left a large treasury behind. After his death in 54 aged 63, his grand-nephew, step-son, and adopted son Nero succeeded him as emperor.