First Spear Centurion - Primus Pilus

Every Roman legion, which typically consisted of 5,000 to 6,000 soldiers, had a 'primuspilus' (first spear) centurion, and a 'secunduspilus' (second spear) centurion. These were the highest-ranking centurions and the most reliable officers in the army. In early episodes of 'Rome' Lucius Vorenus is a first spear centurion.

The Primus Pilus was the senior centurion of the first cohort in a Roman legion. The Primus Pilus was an experienced, career soldier who had risen through the ranks. He was a trusted advisor to the legate. While normal cohorts were composed of five to eight centuries, the one led by the primus pilus had ten centuries, 800 men. It also had 200 staff, including cooks and clerks. The Primus Pilus was charged with protecting the legionary standard and pay-chest. The legion was largely self-supporting and among its men were specialists, such as engineers, surveyors, and architects, as well as craftsmen.

Only experienced, veteran soldiers who had proven their courage in battle would serve in the role. In modern terms the primus pilus would be a lieutenant colonel. The primus pilus was a well paid position. Only 8 officers in a full legion outranked the primus pilus.

Altar by Marcus Aurelius Cocceius Florianus, Primus Pilus of Legio X Gemina.

Evocati were veteran soldiers who voluntarily re-enlisted after an offer from their commander. Evocati were better paid and didn't perform tasks like road building.

Persia: Ancient Iran and the Classical World

An exhibition at the Getty Villa in Los Angeles was entitled "Persia: Ancient Iran and the Classical World". Achaemenid relief with a lion and bull, dated to between 359 and 338 BC.

Achaemenid earrings with inlays, dated to 400-300s BC.

Judaea Capta

Judaea Capta coinage was a series of coins issued by Vespasian and his sons to celebrate the capture of Judaea. Coins inscribed Ivdaea Capta (Judea Captured) were issued throughout the Empire. Coins were issued by Roman Emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian to celebrate the victory over the Jewish revolt and the destruction of Jerusalem's Second Temple in 70 CE.

Coins were struck for 25 years in gold, silver, and bronze.

The Great Revolt between the Romans and the Jews in 63 CE occured after Roman governor Gessius Florus looted the Second Temple. The First Jewish Revolt (66–73/74 CE), was the first of three major rebellions by Judaea against Rome. In 69 CE, Galba, the popular governor of Hispania (Spain), rebelled against Nero marking the start of the 'year of 4 emperors'.

After the capture of Jerusalem, the last rebels committed suicide at Masada.

Vespasian. AU Aureus (7.05 g), AD 69-79. ‘Judaea Capta’ type.

Winner Vespasian levied the punitive Fiscus Judaicus tax against all five million of his Jewish subjects. Vespasian then began striking vast numbers of Judaea Capta coins in all denominations. One element of the Judaea Capta imagery is a group of military trophies. Captured weapons and armor hung from a tree or post represents a military victory over the defeated enemy.

A rare shekel produced in Year 4 plus the ultimate rarity, a Year 5 shekel. The Second Revolt was circa 132-135 CE.

Judaea Capta gold aureus features the inscription DE IVDAEIS (Latin - "concerning the Jews") Hybrid features the strange legend IVDAEA AUGUST.

Titus, AD 79-81. Gold Aureus. A true rarity, the date is early in AD 70, which places it before or during the siege of Jerusalem (May-September 70). Titus as Caesar features the legend IVDAE DEVICTA, or “Judea is conquered,” It realized $956,000 in 2011. The undated coin is the only known example with a complete inscription on the shield.

Galba ruled for eight months from AD 68 to 69. His aureus is one of the great rarities of Roman coins. This example, near XF, made £52,000.

Roman silver mining

To mint silver coins, the Romans needed vast amounts of silver. Much of it originated from the Iberian Peninsula. Roman silver mining in Hispania was the economic engine of the Roman Republic and early Empire. The largest operations were in Rio Tinto and Cartagena.

Extraction of galena (lead-silver ore) in Hispania involved massive metallurgical operations that were the primarily supplier of the silver coinage and lead of the Roman Empire. The extracted argentiferous galena (a lead sulfide mineral, PbS) was first crushed and smelted in furnaces.

By roasting the ore with charcoal, the sulfur was burned off as sulfur dioxide, reducing the lead sulfide into metallic lead. Any silver (Ag) present in the ore dissolved into the newly formed liquid lead.

To separate the silver from the base lead, cupellation was used. The lead bullion was placed on a porous hearth and reheated under a forced blast of air from bellows. The lead oxidized into molten litharge (lead oxide) and was absorbed by the porous hearth, while the silver remained unoxidized. This allowed artisans to extract silver purities that often reached over 95%. The silver content in galena deposits was typically low (0.1% to 0.5%), so ancient miners had to extract and process huge amounts of lead ore to collect silver. The process vaporized vast amounts of lead. The environmental and occupational hazards were severe.

Romans smelting lead-silver ores released large amounts of lead dust into the atmosphere. Global pollution fallout was preserved for millennia in Greenland ice. Lead emissions in the ice precisely mirror the flow and ebb of Roman historical events. When access to new silver was cut off, lead levels decreased as Romans turned to recycling old silver.

The industry required a steady supply of tens of thousands of slaves. Underground mines utilized Roman engineering marvels like wooden water-wheels and screw pumps to battle the water table. An example from the Rio Tinto mines in Spain was one from 16 pairs used to draw water from up to 80m deep.

The sarcophagus of Hercules

The sarcophagus of Hercules was brought from Zurich to Istanbul in 2017 and was put on display in the museum of Antalya, a southern city where the second century artifact originated. Many Roman marble funerary coffins were decorated with scenes from the labours of the hero Hercules. His triumphs over death were a popular theme.

The srcophagus is believed to have been stolen from the ancient city of Perge, 18 kilometers (11 miles) east of Antalya on the Mediterranean coast, sometime in the 1960s. After undergoing restoration in the U.K. several years ago, it was seized by Swiss customs authorities in 2010. The fabled Twelve Labors of Hercules, from the killing of a mythological lion to cleaning the stables, are depicted on the exterior of the sarcophagus. Since 2003, Turkey has been pursuing a legal process for the retrieval of several artifacts. Over 4,000 smuggled historical artifacts were repatriated to Turkey from 2004 to 2016.

The piece was placed next to the "Weary Heracles" statue, which itself was retrieved from the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The top half of the statue was missing for decades before being located in the Boston museum, which purchased it in 1982. The bottom part was discovered in Perge in 1980 and was showcased in the Antalya Museum.

Worst Roman Emperors

Some Roman emperors reputation for cruelty, excess, and debauchery, enabled by unbridled power at the head of a decadent society serves as a warning of absolute power today. Roman emperors had short life expectancy after ascending to the throne. Of the 69 emperors from the accession of Augustus to the reign of Theodosius, 43 suffered a violent death.

Tiberius ruled AD 14–37. He sank into morbid suspicion of everyone around him. He retreated to the island of Capri and revived the ancient accusation of maiestas (treason) and used it to sentence to death anyone he desired. Tiberius living on Capri is recorded as a depraved sexual predator. Tiberius Gold Aureus. Lugdunum. AU Strike 5/5 - Surface 3/5. US$11,150

Caligula ruled from 37–41 CE. He became infamous for his extreme feats of carnage. Nero was his nephew. Caligula was cruel, depraved, and insane. In January 41 CE officers of the Praetorian Guard, led by Cassius Chaerea, killed him. Caligula, formally Gaius, Gold Aureus. Rome, A.D. 40. Laureate head of Gaius facing right, Germanicus, Caligula's father who died in A.D. 19, facing right. Au strike 5/5, surface 2/5. US$45,000.

Nero (AD 54 to 68) debased currency mercilessly and confiscated senators' property and severely taxed to fund his palace, the Domus Aurea. Rome burned for nine days in the Great Fire. Its said Nero used the fire to clear space for his palace. Nero blamed the Christians, executing thousands. Nero Gold Aureus. Lugdunum, A.D. 56-8. Nero facing right, VF, Strike 4/5, Surface 2/5. US$10,800.

Domitian (81–96) was fearful and paranoid. Conspiracy theories consumed him, and some were true. He curtailed the Senate and expelled those he deemed unworthy. He executed officials who opposed his policies and confiscated their property. Domitian was assassinated in 96 CE, ending the Flavian dynasty. Domitian Gold Aureus. Rome. Struck AD 90-91. Superb EF. US$29,500.

Commodus (177–192) was cruel, debauched, and a corrupt megalomaniac who viewed himself as reincarnated Greek gods. He too devalued Roman currency, instituting the largest drop in value since Nero. Commodus Gold Aureus. Rome mint. Struck AD 183. Superb EF US$24,500

Elagabalus (218 to 222). Elagabalus's sin was not bloody, but acting unlike any Emperor. Writers told of his sexual perversion, feminity, bisexuality, and transvestism. Elagabalus Gold Aureus. Slow quadriga moving right, on which is set the conical stone of Emesa. Very rare. Graded NGC Ch VF Strike: 5/5 Surface: 2/5. Graffito. Marks. Bent. US$20,000

Caracalla (AD 211–217) dealt brutally with opponents: he exterminated all of them. Caracalla quickly turned the surplus he inherited from his father into a deficit. He was assassinated by a group of army officers, including Praetorian prefect Opellius Macrinus. Caracalla Gold Aureus. Rome mint. Struck AD 213. Near EF. Extremely rare and important. Caracalla renovated the  Circus Maximus in AD 213, and rare aurei and sestertii were issued to celebrate. This aerial view depicts the Circus as it would be seen from the Palatine Hill. US$140,000

Diocletian (AD 284–305) conducted a ruthless persecution of Christians. Diocletian set about it's total eradication. Churches were destroyed, scriptures burnt, and Christians who refused to give up their faith were tortured and executed. Diocletian Gold Aureus. Grade NGC Ch AU Strike: 5/5 Surface: 4/5, edge marks. US$20,000

Bronze battering rams from First Punic War

Another Egadi ram sees the sunlight again for the first time in 2,263 years – the 26th ancient bronze warship ram raised from the seabed near the Egadi islands. The Battle of the Aegates was fought in March 241 BC between the fleets of Carthage and Rome. pic.twitter.com/eT9UGOWKS2 — Gareth Harney (@OptimoPrincipi) August 26, 2023

In 2021 bronze battering rams — each weighing 450 pounds — were recovered from Roman wrecks that sunk off the coast of Sicily in 241 BC. Originally attached to the bows of warships, the rams were used against the Carthaginian fleet during the Battle of the Aegates that ended the First Punic War. Roman consul Gaius Lutatius Catullus led a newly formed fleet to confront a Carthaginian squadron commanded by Hanno. Fought in the waters around Sicily and North Africa, conflict between the Phoenicians and the Romans lasted 23 years. The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between the Phoenicians of Carthage and Rome in the early third century BC.The Battle of the Aegates was fought off the western coast of the island of Sicily on 10 March 241 BC. It was the final naval battle between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic during the First Punic War. The 23-year-long First Punic War ended with a major victory for the Roman Republic over Carthage.

Romans sunk 50 Carthaginian vessels and captured 70 more at the cost of 30 of their own ships and damage to 50 more. It's thought the fleets of both sides originally numbered some 200 vessels. Carthaginian rams had inscriptions to the god Baal on them were less well made than the Roman rams. Roman rams have an inscription by an inspector to verify that they met standards.

A unique bronze helmet discovered by marine archaeologists off the Sicilian coast are dated to the sea battle. The helmet is a Montefortino, a Celtic style-helmet that was worn across Europe, also  known as a "Roman helmet".

Diving to 120m, archaeologists examined an area of about 5 sq km, littered with the relics of the decisive battle. Bronze helmets, amphora, weapons and ancient battle rams cast in bronze, were salvaged from the seabed.

The first Punic War, with the largest naval battles of antiquity, would drag on for more than 20 years. The battle of Egadi, in 241 BC was a turning point: the Carthaginians were defeated and forced to abandon Sicily. Rome also won Corsica and Sardinia.

Reconstruction of a Hellenic trireme

Artifacts continue to be pulled from the seafloor, offering clues to the battle. 11 of 19 rams found are Roman, but this can be explained by the fact the Carthaginians captured Roman ships in a previous battle.

The many Montefortino helmets may have belonged to mercenaries from Gaul and Iberia, who fought for Carthage and were known to sometimes wear them. Near Levanzo Island, coins from the Mediterranean seafloor have been recovered. The Carthaginian fleet under Hanno had an urgent need of supply convoys carrying money, provisions, and mercenaries to reinforce Hamilcar Barca. Huge amounts of currency meant to pay mercinaries went down with the ships. Struck in bronze, silver, and debased silver or billon, coins were large and heavy, weighing roughly 17 to 19 grams.