Denarius showing Roman Republic citizens voting

Denarius struck under the moneyer Publius Licinius Nerva in 112 BC, British Museum Collection. A toga-clad citizen drops his voting tablet in the ballot box, while behind him another voter receives his tablet from an attendant below. Voters crossed elevated walkways or 'pontes' above their fellow citizens in order to reach the ballot box, so all could see that they had voted without any last-minute intimidation or interference. Almost all magistrates of the Republic were elected officials, voted into power by Roman citizens. There were no political parties in the republic. Candidates campaigned on their own virtue, personal or family reputation, or gifts to voters. Bribes given to voters came in the form of money, food, and games. They were a common and burdensome campaign expense.

In 119 BC, the influential tribune Gaius Marius further narrowed the pons causeway leading to the ballot box, in order to prevent any non-voters from standing on the gangway and engaging in bribery or intimidation; literally, to ensure that there was 'no room' for interference.

Rare ancients bring top dollar

The most expensive Greek coin of Künker’s Spring Auction Sales in 2022 was a Syracuse/Sicily. 16 litrae, 214-212 BC. Of the finest style, greatest rarity, utmost historical importance, on a large blank with wonderful toning. The 16 litrae coin was among one of the last issues of the free city of Syracuse before the Romans conquered it during the Second Punic War. 95,000 euros.

Punic Sicily. 5 shekel (decadrachm), around 264 BC, unknown Sicilian mint. Very rare. Very fine+. Estimate: 30,000 euros. Hammer price: 75,000 euros. The largest silver coin ever produced by Carthage weighing around 36 to 38 grams was used to pay mercenaries.

Gela/Sicily. Tetradrachm, 450-440 BC. Very fine to extremely fine. Estimate: 2,500 euros. Hammer price: 34,000 euros. The colony of Gela was founded in 680 B.C. by colonists from Crete and Rhodes. The man-faced bull represents the Greek river god Acheloos.

Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus

In 458 BC, Rome was in danger and on the brink of collapse. An invading army had trapped the Roman consul and his legion in a mountain pass. Panic spread through the city. The Senate did the only thing they could think of: they sent messengers to find a 60-year-old farmer plowing his field. He was Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus. He had once been a senator, but now he worked his own four-acre plot of land. Rome made him dictator with absolute power. Total command of the army. No checks or oversight. No term limit. He accepted. Within 16 days, Cincinnatus had raised an army, marched out, surrounded the enemy, and forced their surrender. The republic was saved. He had legal authority to rule for six months.

Cloelius Gracchus, the Aequian commander, was paraded in Cincinnatus' triumphal procession. Cincinnatus resigned as dictator the same day. He took off his toga, put his work clothes on, and walked back to his farm and finished plowing the field he'd left. 20 years later, when Rome faced another crisis, they called on him again.

He was 80 years old. He took command, crushed the conspiracy, and resigned again, this time after 21 days. He died a poor man on his farm. The lesson of Cincinnatus was not his humility. The lesson is that the people most qualified to lead were the ones who didn't want to. The moment society rewards those who chase their blind ambition for power instead of those who flee from it, is the moment society begins to die. Cincinnati, Ohio is named after him. Most people have no idea why.

Golden Pectoral from Tovsta Mohyla

The Golden Pectoral from Tovsta Mohyla is a Scythian treasure discovered in a large kurgan near the city of Ordzonikidzhe in Ukraine in 1971. It probably dates to the 4th century BC, and was made by Greek goldsmiths, probably in a workshop located in Scythian lands. The pectoral is made of solid 24-carat gold, and weighs just over 1150 grams. The pectoral consists of four torques arranged in a concentric arc, forming three crescent-shaped fields.

The top section reflects daily life. The middle section is believed to represent nature. The third section is thought to represent Scythian belief in their mythology.

The Golden Pectoral is a masterpiece of Greco-Scythian metalwork.

The grave mound belonged to a high status Scythian aristocrat and despite being looted in antiquity, the Golden Pectoral from Tovsta Mohyla survived. Few objects remain due to grave robbers. The Golden Pectoral from Tovsta Mohyla remains one of the most astounding pieces of gold jewelry to ever survive from the ancient world. The high quality of filigree craftsmanship astonishes modern jewelers. All details of the 160 elements are finely detailed - feathers, muscles, ribs, hoofs, horns, and even the genitalia of the depicted creatures - are anatomically precise and meticulously exact.

Face of Alexander the Great

Artist Alessandro Tomasi has brought the long dead to living colour before.

His latest effort gives us Alexander the Great, based apon on the Lysippus bust and the Alexander Mosaic.

Ancient depictions of Alexander the Great usually show a youth. A Roman copy of a bronze made by Lysippus, Alexander’s personal sculptor, is thought to be among the best showing Alexander's true likeness.

Kingdom of Macedonia. Alexander III, 336-323 B.C. Distater

Alexander III of Macedon. Gold distater, 336-323, Macedonian mint. Very rare. About EF. Estimate: 20,000 euros. Hammer price: 70,000 euros in 2022.

A distater of Alexander III of Macedon (336-323 B.C.) was a gold coin, a larger denomination than a stater, used during his reign and shortly after his death. These high-value coins served as 'campaign currency' to pay veteran soldiers. It featured the image of the goddess Athena on the obverse and Nike, the goddess of victory, on the reverse, with the inscription "ALEXANDROU" (of Alexander).

Most Alexander distaters were melted down in ancient times as their extremely high value made them unsuitable for trade.

The distater was a gold coin weighing around 17.12 grams, representing the largest gold denomination issued under Alexander's rule. Struck during his lifetime or shortly after his death, it is a remarkable piece of ancient numismatic history. Gold distaters were issued to reward elite soldiers and finance Alexander’s campaigns. Only 3 are known in mint state.

Elagabalus

Elagabalus was a close relative to the Severan dynasty. He came from a prominent Arab family in Emesa (Homs), Syria. Elagabalus is considered among the worst emperors even though he was far less bloody than the rest.

In his early youth he served as head priest of the sun god Elagabal. After the death of his cousin Caracalla in 218, Elagabalus was raised to the principate at age 14 in an army revolt instigated by his grandmother Julia Maesa against Caracalla's short-lived successor, Macrinus. Elagabalus was assassinated and replaced by his cousin Severus Alexander in March 222.

Elagabalus quickly gained a reputation for extreme eccentricity, moral decadence, zealotry and sexual proclivity and perversion.

The assassination was again devised by Julia Maesa and carried out by the Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus 218-222 CE gold aureus. The obverse features a laureate bust of the Roman emperor Elagabalus facing left. On the reverse is a stunning scene with a quadriga moving left to right bearing the stone of Emesa with an eagle cresting the stone. The legend reads “SANCT DEO SOLI ELAGABAL” ('To the Holy Sun God El-Gabel'). This example is one of two of this type known to exist.

Ancients regarded stones that fell from the sky as manifestations of the divine. The Syrian town of Emesa (now Homs) had a temple enshrining a conical black stone that was likely a meteorite. Elagabalus' first official act was to transfer the sacred rock to Rome’s main temple, the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. Elagabalus disregarded Roman religious traditions and sexual taboos. He replaced the head of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter, with the deity Elagabal. His behavior outraged the Praetorian Guard, the Senate, and the common people.

Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 – March 235), also known as Alexander Severus, was Roman emperor from 222 until 235. The last emperor from the Severan dynasty, he succeeded Elagabalus in 222, at the age of 13.

Alexander was also assassinated. His death marked the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century, which included nearly fifty years of civil war, foreign invasion, and the further collapse of the monetary economy.

Viking gold hoard in Denmark

In 2017 three metal detectorists found the largest Viking gold hoard ever discovered in Denmark. At 900 grams, the hoard consists of seven worked bracelets, six of gold and one of silver. The silver piece weighs about 90 grams. Gold is extremely rare in the Viking record. The group found the pieces in a field in Vejen, which is in Jutland. There’s no doubt the treasure belonged to Viking elite, and the bracelets may have been used by a chief as alliance gifts, or as rewards or oath rings for his men.

A gold chain of 67 grams was found in the area in 1911. The latest find is almost certainly connected to the chain.

Viking Gold arm ring

Battle of Teutoburg Forest

In 2018 eight gold coins were discovered in Germany that could confirm the site of the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. Such a find is extremely rare. The recent discovery at Kalkriese doubles the number of gold coins from the site. The coins feature Emperor Augustus, with the imperial princes Gaius and Lucius Caesar, and date between 2BCE and 5CE. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place between 8 and 11 September 9 AD, near modern Kalkriese, when an alliance of Germanic tribes ambushed and destroyed three legions of the Roman commander Publius Quintilius Varus.

In the autumn of AD 9, the 25-year-old Arminius brought Varus a false report of rebellion in northern Germany. He persuaded Varus to divert the three legions under his command. (17th, 18th, and 19th legions, plus three cavalry detachments and six cohorts of auxiliaries) Ignoring a warning from Segestes not to trust Arminius, Varus marched deep into the Teutoburg Forest. All three legions were wiped out to the last man. Varus committed suicide.

As part of obligations to appease Rome, Segimer, the powerful Cherusci chief, surrendered his sons Arminius and Flavus to the Roman emperor Augustus. The young boys left the village and tribal lands of their birth in central Germania Magna to be taken to Rome and treated as nobility. Varus received his appointment as governor in 7 AD, about a year before Arminius’ arrival. Varus held overall command of five legions and auxiliaries. Arminius had come to hate everything Roman. Arminius was not alone. He met with tribal chiefs to forge plans on how to rid themselves of the Romans. Arminius led an army of between 10,000 and 17,000 warriors back to Varus, with several times as many on the way. Word of the impending attack on the Romans spread. Not just among the Cherusci did warriors gather but also from their allies the Marsi and the Bructeri and from the Angrivarii, Chauci, Chatti, and Sugambri. Roman patrols and work parties along the route to Anreppen and in the countryside were caught off guard and slaughtered.

As a result of the battle Germania remained independent from Roman rule. Roughly 25,000 men were killed during the slaughter in Teutoburg Forest. Teutoburg Forest is considered one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end.

It dissuaded the Romans from pursuing the conquest of Germania.

An aureus from the reign of Augustus would have been enough to feed and house an entire family in Rome for a month. Archaeologists speculate they once belonged to a high-ranking Roman officer.

In 1990 a misshapen and corroded cavalry mask was found. Thought to have been worn during exhibitions by cavalry it is one of the most exceptional finds at the site of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. It is one the oldest facial helmets known from the Roman army, dating from the first part of the 1st century CE.

'Underworld' at the Getty Villa

“Underworld: Imagining the Afterlife,” was an exhibit at the Getty Villa in 2018. One of the masterpieces is a krater from Altamura, Italy, dated about 350 B.C. It is almost 6 feet tall and would have been made only for a high status individual. The exhibit provided a lens into Rome's underworld during that period.

Grave relief fragment with Danaids, Persephone and Hades, Hermes and Herakles, late 4th century B.C. Gold burial offerings were intended to help the deceased navigate the afterlife.

Storage Jar with Sisyphus and the Uninitiated, about 525 BC

Orpheus emerges as a central figure. Orpheus traveled to the underworld to retrieve his wife, Eurydice. The quest did not turn out well for Orpheus, but he returned from the Underworld, a feat that made him a hero.

Weeping Siren, about 350 - 325 B.C.

Cyrene - Silphium

Cyrene, sometimes anglicized as Kyrene, was an ancient Greek colony and Roman city near present-day Shahhat in northeastern Libya in North Africa. It was part of the Pentapolis, a group of five cities in the region and gave the area its name Cyrenaica.

Founded in the 7th century B.C., Cyrene was one of the principal cities in the Hellenic world.

UNESCO added the site to its World Heritage List in 1992. “A thousand years of history is written into its ruins,” it said. Cyrene lies between the Egyptian border and Benghazi.

The city was attributed to Apollo and the legendary etymon Cyrene by the Greeks but it was probably colonized by settlers from Thera (modern Santorini) in the late seventh century BC. It was initially ruled by a dynasty of monarchs called the Battiads, who grew rich from the export of horses and silphium, a medicinal plant.

The ruins of Cyrene survived Libya’s 2011 revolution and a decade of lawlessness but now face looters.

Silphium is a lost plant that was used in classical antiquity as a seasoning, perfume, aphrodisiac, and medicine. It was claimed to have become extinct in Roman times. Silphium had an extremely small growing range, about 125 by 35 miles (201 by 56 km), in the southern steppe of Cyrenaica. Extremely valuable, overharvesting has long been cited as the primary factor that led to its extinction. It could not be cultivated from seed but instead only asexually through their roots. The plant may have been a Roman hybrid.