First Spear Centurion - Primus Pilus

Every Roman legion, which typically consisted of 5,000 to 6,000 soldiers, had a “primuspilus” (first spear) centurion, and a “secunduspilus” (second spear) centurion. These were the highest-ranking centurions and the most efficient and reliable officers in the army. In early episodes of 'Rome' Lucius Vorenus is a second spear centurion.

The Primus pilus was the senior centurion of the first cohort in a Roman legion. The name Primus Pilus is translated to "first spear". He was a career soldier and advisor to the legate. While normal cohorts were composed of five to eight centuries, the one led by the primus pilus had ten centuries, 800 men. It also had 200 staff, including cooks and clerks. The Primus Pilus was charged with protecting the legionary standard and pay-chest. The legion was largely self-supporting and among its men were specialists, such as engineers, surveyors, and architects, as well as craftsmen.

The primus pilus was the most senior of all the centurions within the legion. They were experienced, veteran soldiers who had moved up within the ranks. In modern terms the primus pilus would be a lieutenant colonel. The primus pilus was a well paid position. Only eight officers in a full legion outranked the primus pilus.

Altar by Marcus Aurelius Cocceius Florianus, Primus Pilus of Legio X Gemina.

Evocati were veteran soldiers who voluntarily re-enlisted after an offer from their commander. Evocati were better paid and didn't perform tasks like road building.

Priceless Tumaco gold

Policia Nacional recovered the stunning Tumaco gold (1st century B.C.– 4th century C.E.) at Madrid’s Barajas airport in 2020.

It was part of a shipment which included several other extremely rare pre-Columbian gold figurines and jewellery illegally plundered from archaeological sites. Colombian authorities carried out house searches in Bogota, resulting in the seizure of another 242 ancient objects, the largest ever in the country’s history.

Gold Mask, eyes and teeth plated with platinum. Tumaco-La Tolita, National Museum of Ecuador 350 BC. – 400 AD. The Tumaco-la-Tolita used a process called sintering. They heated and mixed both gold and platinum together and hammered repeatedly until it was flat enough to be worked into different shapes. The advanced technique wasn't known to Europeans until the 18th century.

The 12 labours of Hercules depicted on Ancient coinage

1st Labour- Slaying the Nemean Lion, on a Double Dekadrachm of Syracuse in Sicily, 405-400 BC.

The 12 labours of Hercules
by u/coinoscopeV2

2nd Labour- Slaying the Lernaean Hydra, on a Stater of Phaistos in Crete, 350-300 BC.
3rd Labour - Capturing the Ceryneian Hind, on a Roman bronze Medallion of Perinthus in Thrace, 211-217 AD.
4th Labour - Capturing the Erymanthian Boar, on another Roman bronze Medallion from Perinthus, 193-211 AD.
5th Labour - Cleaning the Augean stables in a single day, on a bronze Drachm from Alexandria in Roman Egypt, 146/147 AD.
6th Labour - Slaying the Stymphalian birds, on another bronze Drachm from Alexandria, 142/143 AD.
7th Labour - Capturing the Cretan Bull, on a didrachm of Selinos in Sicily, 455-440 BC.
8th Labour- Stealing the Mares of Diomedes, on a Provincial Roman bronze from Heracleia Pontica in Bithynia, 217-218 AD.
9th Labour - Obtaining the belt of Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons, from an uncertain stater of Cilica, mid-late 5th century.
10th Labour - Obtaining the cattle of the three-bodied giant Geryon, on another bronze Drachm from Alexandria, 140/141 AD.
11th Labour - Stealing three of the golden apples of the Hesperides, on a Roman Aureus minted at Antioch, 293-295 AD.
12th Labour - Capturing and bringing back Cerberus, on a civic bronze Octassarion from Heracleia Pontica, 238-244 AD.

Minoan Gold

Minoan, about 1850-1550 BC. 'Master (or Mistress) of the Animals'

The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age society that arose on the island of Crete and flourished from about the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC. 'Minoan' was coined after the mythic King Minos.

Minos is associated in myth with the labyrinth, which identifies with the site at Knossos.

The Minoan civilization developed from local Neolithic culture around 3100 BC, with complex urban settlements starting around 2000 BC. According to Greek mythology, King Minos of Crete had the craftsman Daedalus construct the Labyrinth in order to conceal the Minotaur.Salzburg Multiple lane labyrinth with Theseus and the Minotauros in the center.

The Minotaur was a half bull and half man creature that yearly ate the Athernian tribute of fourteen young men and women.

The Bronze Age began in Crete as the island developed centers of commerce.

This enabled the upper classes to expand their influence. The ground would be laid for a monarchist power structure - a precondition for great empires. Around 1450 BCE, Minoan culture experienced a turning point due to a natural catastrophe, possibly the eruption of Thera. (Santorin) The palace in Knossos seems to have remained largely intact. The Minoan palace sites were occupied by the Myceneans around 1420 BC. By 1200 BC the Minoans had faded into history.

Signet ring dates to around 1500 BCE

Rare Viking gold found in Northern Ireland

In 2013 a very rare piece of Viking gold was discovered by an amateur treasure hunter in Northern Ireland.

The 86% gold ingot was found at Brickland in Co Down, a short distance from Loughbrickland. Records say the Vikings plundered Loughbrickland in 833 AD.

The gold may be a result of contact between locals and Vikings. The ingots were used as currency. Gold is extremely rare in the Viking record, while there are vast quantities of silver. There are few parallels to the very valuable ingot.

This gold ring was lost by a Viking in Essex

Ancient 'Kungas' explained

Mesopotamians were using hybrids of domesticated donkeys and wild asses to pull their war wagons 4,500 years ago — at least 500 years before horses were bred for the purpose. Analysis of ancient DNA from animal bones unearthed in northern Syria resolves a long-standing question of just what "kungas", described in ancient sources as pulling war wagons, were. The new study shows that kungas were strong, fast and sterile hybrids of a female domestic donkey and a male Syrian wild ass.

Ancient records say kungas were highly prized and very expensive. This can be explained by the difficult process of breeding them. A male wild ass had to be captured, and that was a difficult task because wild asses could run faster than donkeys and kungas. They were also impossible to tame. Kungas were the earliest hybrids ever produced by humans.

Kudos to @DrHughT for the nifty video.

History of Blue

Egyptian Juglet, ca. 1750–1640 B.C.

Blue is considered to be the first synthetically produced color pigment. Egyptian blue (cuprorivaite) was created around 2,200 B.C. It was made from ground limestone mixed with sand and a copper mineral, such as azurite or malachite, then heated between 1470 and 1650°F. The result was an opaque blue glass which was then crushed and combined with thickening agents such as egg whites to create a paint or glaze.

The history of ultramarine began around 6,000 years ago when the semi-precious gemstone it was made from—lapis lazuli—began to be imported by the Egyptians from Afghanistan. The Egyptians tried and failed to turn it into a paint, with each attempt resulting in gray. Instead, they used it to make jewelry and headdresses. Also known as “true blue” lapis lazuli first appeared as a pigment in the 6th century and was used in Buddhist paintings in Afghanistan. It was renamed ultramarine—in Latin: ultramarinus, meaning “beyond the sea”. It remained extremely expensive until a synthetic ultramarine was invented in 1826 by a French chemist, who then named it “French Ultramarine.” Cobalt blue dates back to the 8th and 9th centuries, and was then used to color ceramics and jewelry.

A purer alumina-based version was later discovered in 1802 with commercial production beginning in France in 1807.

Constantine I solidus

A Roman solidus of Emperor Constantine I was dug up from a field in Somerset in 2019. Constantine the Great ruled between 306 and 337 AD. The coin was found 12 inches below the surface of a field near Wanstrow, Somerset. The high grade example was estimated at £10k-12k.

On the reverse is a rare portrayal of Constantine riding his horse in battle holding a spear and shield with two fallen enemy soldiers. It commemorates a victory over Maxentius at Milvian bridge outside Rome on October 28, 312. Constantine I become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. The routed Maxentius drowned in the Tiber trying to escape the battle.

Constantine enacted reforms. To combat inflation he reintroduced the solidus. The solidus was introduced by Diocletian in small issues and later reintroduced for mass circulation by Constantine the Great in c. AD 312. Constantine's solidus was struck at a rate of 72 to a Roman pound (326.6 g) of gold or about 4.5 grams. The new gold coin became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years.

Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, which he did on his deathbed.

Constantine was a ruler of major importance, and a controversial figure. Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola (Pula, Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta killed in an overheated bath. Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. More bloodshed followed.

This Maxentius (AD 307-312) AV quaternio or medallion of 4-aurei, weighing 21.12 grams. NGC MS 5/5 - 2/5, is exceptionally rare – it is one of just two known. It fetched $212k in 2022.

The medallion was issued as a commemorative during the restoration of the temple of Urbis Veneris, erected by Hadrian in AD 135 and damaged by fire in 307 AD. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c. 283 – 28 October 312) was the son of former Emperor Maximian and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius. The latter part of his reign was preoccupied with civil war. Defeated at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, Maxentius was the last emperor to permanently reside in Rome.

Black Death

The Black Death plague arrived in western Europe in 1347 and in England in 1348. It faded away in the early 1350s. The Black Death, or ‘pestilencia’ was the worst catastrophe in recorded history. It destroyed a higher proportion of the population than any other single known event. One observer noted ‘the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead.’ Old and young, men and women: all of society – royalty, peasants, archbishops, monks, nuns and parish clergy. None were immune to the Black Death. In Europe it is thought that some 50 million people died.

Researchers simulated Black Death outbreaks. The model that focused on fleas and ticks on humans was the most accurate for explaining the spread of the disease.

In Medieval times people believed that the Black Death came from God, and responded with prayers. Rats have long been blamed for spreading the Black Death. A study suggests that rats weren’t the main carriers of fleas and lice that spread the plague ... it was humans.

The Black Death was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which originated in Asia and spread westward along trade routes.

Volubilis

Volubilis is a partly excavated Berber-Roman city in Morocco near the city of Meknes. Built in a fertile agricultural area, it developed from the 3rd century BC onward as a Berber, then proto-Carthaginian, settlement before being the capital of the kingdom of Mauretania. It grew rapidly under Roman rule from the 1st century AD onward and expanded to cover about 100 acres with a 2.6 km circuit of walls. The city gained a number of major public buildings in the 2nd century, including a basilica, temple and triumphal arch.

Prosperity came from Rome's demand for grain and olives. This trade prompted the construction of fine houses with large mosaic floors. The city fell to local tribes around 285 and was never retaken by Rome because of its remoteness and indefensibility.

Despite evidence of ecological destruction, Volubilis grew in prosperity, thriving for the first two centuries of the imperial era. A main street, the Decumanus, had broad sidewalks lined with shops and the houses of the wealthy. At one end of the street was the imposing Arch of Caracalla.

At its peak in the late 2nd century, Volubulis was home to some 20,000 inhabitants. Volubilis was under threat from Berber tribes. It slipped out of imperial control, falling to local tribes in 285 CE. Volubilis was now deemed too remote to be retaken, lying beyond the frontiers of Rome’s shrunken borders in Africa. Despite the centuries since its abandonment, Volubilis remains one of the best-preserved Roman cities in Africa. Several houses with mosaics and large mosaic floors have been excavated. The grandest of them is the House of Orpheus.