Amphipolis tomb interior unveiled

The Amphipolis Tomb lies within the Kasta Hill burial mound, 100 km east of Thessaloniki in Greece.

Greek officials have unveiled the interior of a massive ancient tomb possibly linked to Alexander the Great. The excavation centers around the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis, the ruins of an ancient Macedonian city in northern Greece, about 60 miles northeast of Thessaloniki.

The Lysippus bust of Alexander the Great

Archaeologists have now fully revealed the tumulus enclosure, stretching 497 meters in circumference, while the monument itself covers more than 20 acres (22,000 square meters). Amphipolis is associated with major figures of the Kingdom of Macedon, such as the three generals of Alexander the Great, Nearchus, Hephaestion, and Laomedon. After Alexander’s death, the city’s garrison remained loyal to his mother Olympias and only agreed to surrender the city to Cassander, one of Alexander’s successors, on her orders. Cassander imprisoned Alexander’s wife Roxana and his son Alexander IV in Amphipolis after defeating Olympias in 316 BCE. Olympias was stoned to death in 316 BCE by the relatives of her victims after she surrendered to Cassander. Cassander imprisoned Alexander’s wife Roxana and his son, Alexander IV, in the citadel of Amphipolis. Fearing the legitimate heir would soon come of age, Cassander had them secretly poisoned around 310 BC.

The ancient city of Amphipolis was conquered by Philip II of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great, in 357 BC. The tomb was found to contain sculptures of caryatids, an ornate mosaic, and coins featuring Alexander the Great. Evidence suggests the tomb was a memorial dedicated to the friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion.

Hephaestion was a Macedonian nobleman that grew up with Alexander, studying with him under the tutelage of Aristotle. They became close friends, as well as comrades. Hephaestion became a member of Alexander’s personal bodyguard and went on to command the Companion cavalry. Hephaestion died suddenly in Ecbatana, Iran, in 324 BC. Alexander ordered a series of monuments to be built for Hephaestion across his empire

The remains of five were found in the burial chamber of the elaborate tomb. A woman over 60 years old, two men between the ages of 35 and 45, a newborn infant, and a set of cremated remains. Speculation is that the woman is Alexander the Great’s mother, Olympias, who died when she was about 60 years old.

According to legend Hephaestion was cremated.

Caligae

Roman caligae were the heavy-soled, hobnailed military sandal-boots famously worn by legionary soldiers and auxiliaries throughout the Roman Republic and Empire. Their durable design allowed soldiers to march long distances in diverse climates without blistering or overheating. Dozens of iron nails were hammered through the sole. The iron hobnails drastically reduced wear and provided excellent traction on soft, slippery, or uneven ground.

The nails acted like cleats on rough, muddy, or sandy terrain and provided an offensive advantage in close-quarters combat. Roman soldiers were called caligati. ("booted ones") Emperor Caligula got his famous nickname "Little Boot" because his parents dressed him in miniature soldier's armor including caligae as a toddler. The distinctive clattering and crunching sound of thousands of hobnailed sandals marching in unison struck fear into Rome's enemies.

By the late 1st century, the Roman military began transitioning toward enclosed leather boots, known as calcei, which offered better protection in harsh and cold environments.

Ingot find reveals UK’s ancient trade routes

New evidence suggests Britain had trade routes with the rest of the world as far back as the Bronze Age.

Similar ingots, dating from around 1,300 BC, were also found at archaeological sites in Greece and Turkey.

In 2019 researchers have revealed 3000-year-old tin ingots found in Israel actually originated from Devon and Cornwall. Commodities such as tin, amber and glass were highly prized in the ancient world and were the catalysts of international trade routes.

The origin of tin has long been an enigma in archaeological research. Bronze was used to make weapons, jewellery, and daily objects. Tin ingots are valuable for research because they can accurately point to their exact origin. Around 3,000 BC, ancients began smelting copper with tin in order to create a stronger metal; bronze. The Bronze Age witnessed the development of many innovations. Societies around the world grew faster and more advanced and trade was the reason.

The daric

The Achaemenid Empire ruled over much of the Middle East from 550 to 330 BCE.

Coinage was issued from the mint of Sardis and consisted of the silver siglos and the gold daric. This is the bimetallic monetary standard by the Achaemenid Empire, copied from Croesus. The coins remained basically unchanged for over two hundred years. The daric was a high-purity gold coin of 8.4 grams based on the ancient Babylonian shekel. It was a month’s pay for a mercenary. One daric exchanged for 20 silver sigloi.

When Cyrus the Great (550–530) came to power, coinage was unfamiliar in his realm. Cyrus the Great introduced coins to the Persian Empire after 546 BCE, following his conquest of Lydia and the defeat of its king Croesus, whose father Alyattes had put in place the first bi-metal coinage in history. The staters had a weight of 10.7 grams, a standard initially created by Croesus.

Hoards of the international trade coin have been found from Sicily to Afghanistan. The daric is one of the few coins mentioned in the Old Testament. There are 4 main types of daric. There are few survivors of the type 1 and type 2 coins, making them extremely valuable. The Type 3 daric is by far the most common. Dated from around 485 to 420 BCE, there are several variants. Condition determines value. The rare Type IV daric, dated c. 455-420, shows the king holding a short dagger rather than a spear.

Even more rare and valuable are “double darics” which continued to be struck under Alexander the Great at Babylon for a short time after the fall of the Persian empire. The example shown made $50k in 2015.

The Thucydides Trap

The Thucydides Trap describes the historical tendency toward war when a rapidly rising power threatens to displace an established ruling power. The term is based on a famous observation by the ancient Greek historian Thucydides about the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE): "It was the rise of Athens and the fear that this instilled in Sparta that made war inevitable." The Peloponnesian War, fought between the Athenian Empire and the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League, devastated the Greek world and ended with the defeat of Athens and the establishment of Spartan hegemony.

The concept serves as a framework for analyzing modern geopolitical friction between the United States and China.

Sparta, (the U.S.) reacts with anxiety to the rapid growth of the rising challenge of Athens (China), creating a spiral of structural tension that leads to war 75% of the time.

Constantine I AV medallion

AV medallion of 9 solidi (47mm, 41.88 gm). NGC Choice VF 5/5 - 2/5. Draped and cuirassed bust of Constantine I. Obverse flanked by Constantine II and Constantius II, both standing facing in military dress. Gold medallions were gifts produced for the emperor to bestow upon high ranking civilians and military. This example is likely unique. $50k

Baiae - Las Vegas of ancient Rome

Baiae was a mineral springs and coastal resort on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Naples in ancient Italy. The city was named after Baius, Ulysses’ helmsman. It was fashionable for centuries during antiquity for the super-rich. The ancient Roman 'Sin City' was famed for its natural volcanic hot springs. It housed some of the empire's most luxurious baths and private saunas. (laconica)

It was notorious for its hedonism, corruption and scandal. Roman poet Sextus Propertius once described Baiae as a “vortex of luxury” and a “harbor of vice.” Baiae later formed part of Port Julius, the base of the western fleet of the Imperial Roman Navy. Its ruins were submerged by volcanic activity by the time of the Renaissance.

Baiae was built on the Cumaean Peninsula in the Phlegraean Fields, an active volcanic area.

The bathhouses of Baiae were filled with warm mineral water directed to its pools from underground sulfur springs. Roman engineers constructed a complex system of chambers that channeled underground heat into facilities that acted as saunas.

A series of dives involving historians and scientists from across the world revealed vast villas, priceless statues and breathtaking mosaics, as well as heated spas, cobbled streets and even a nymphaeum – a grotto of pleasure. The chambers of volcanic molten rock that lay beneath Baiae, providing the hot water that served the spas, were eventually its undoing. The chambers emptied as the lava found a way to escape, causing the resort to sink beneath the waves.

A volcanic phenomenon known as bradysism saw large portions of Baiae’s coastline—including opulent villas and bathing complexes, sink about 3 meters beneath the Gulf of Naples. One of its most notorious events was in CE 39, when Emperor Caligula ordered a floating bridge of nearly five kilometers across the gulf to be built and rode across it on horseback.

A palace was built in Baiae by Emperor Nero, and Hadrian died among its baths in CE 138. Cicero had a villa in Baiae.

Legatus legionis

A legatus legionis was the commanding officer of a Roman legion, a position equivalent to a modern brigadier general or lieutenant general. Usually appointed by the Emperor from the senatorial class for a 3–4 year term, they had absolute authority over their legion.

The term legatus was was formalized under Augustus as the officer in command of a legion. The Legatus legionis held complete authority over a legion, often reporting directly to the provincial governor. (legatus Augusti pro praetore) From the Roman Republic, legates received a large share of the military's spoils at the end of a successful military campaign. This made the position of Legatus extremely lucrative, able to attract consuls or senators. In the 3rd century, Emperor Gallienus replaced these senatorial legates with experienced equestrian commanders.

There were two main positions; the legatus legionis was an ex-praetor given command of one of Rome's elite legions. The legatus pro praetore was an ex-consul given the governorship of a Roman province. He held powers of a praetor, which in some cases included command of four or more legions. The legatus in the field would be recognized by his elaborate helmet and body armour, as well as a scarlet paludamentum (cloak) and cincticulus (a waist-band tied around the waist in a bow). A legatus legionis could and often did order punishments, including executions.