Mapungubwe: South Africa’s lost city of gold

A thousand years ago, Mapungubwe in Limpopo province was the center of the largest kingdom in Africa, where a sophisticated people traded gold and ivory with China, India and Egypt. The Iron Age site was declared a World Heritage site by Unesco in July 2003. Mapungubwe is an area of open savanah at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers and abutting the northern border of South Africa and the borders of Zimbabwe and Botswana. It thrived from around 1220 to 1300.

Twenty-three graves have been excavated so far with the bodies in three of these graves buried in the upright seated position associated with royalty, with a variety of gold and copper items, and exotic glass beads. The finds provide evidence of the early gold work and extensive wealth.

Mapungubwe’s fortune only lasted until about 1300, after which climate changes led to migrations north.

By 1300 AD, the region was the center of trade in southern Africa. Wealth came from ivory and later from gold deposits in Zimbabwe. The area was also agriculturally rich. The wealth in the area led to vast differences between rich and poor.

Golden rhino, Mapungubwe National Park

Gold of Croesus

Croesus is credited with issuing the first true gold coins with a standardized purity for general circulation.

Croesus was the king of Lydia from 560 to 547 BC until his defeat by the Persians. In Greek and Persian cultures the name of Croesus became a synonym for great wealth. His wealth came from the River Pactolus in which the King Midas washed his hands to rid himself of the 'Midas Touch'.

Around 550 BC Croesus paid for the construction of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Croesus is a legendary figure, but was an actual king who ruled from Sardis.

Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis

Croesus claimed to be happy. Solon disagreed saying no one could be said to have lived a happy life until death, as the living dealt with an unknowable future.

When Croesus learned of the Persians under Cyrus he sent to the Oracle at Delphi to divine whether he should wage war against the Persians. The oracle replied: "If Croesus goes to war he will destroy a great empire."

Tholos of Delphi

Pleased by this answer, Croesus met the Persian army at the Halys River. The battle was a draw. Cyrus pressed the attack, massacred Croesus’ cavalry by mounting his own on dromedaries (camels - whose scent frightened Lydian horses) and captured Croesus. Arm of a soldier, killed in the battle between Croesus and Cyrus. He died clutching a sling stone in his hand.

Croesus was dragged before Cyrus in chains. Cyrus ordered Croesus to be burned alive. Croesus called out for aid from Apollo. "O Solon! Solon! Solon!" Cyrus asked a translator what this meant and Croesus told the story of Solon’s visit, how no man can be counted happy until after his death, and how he was misled by the Oracle at Delphi. Cyrus was moved by this story and Croesus was released. He sent him to Delphi for an answer from the gods as to why he was betrayed. The answer came back that the Oracle had spoken only truth - a great empire had, in fact, been destroyed by Croesus – and it was not the fault of the gods if man misinterpreted the words.

Greek literature for generations held up Croesus as a symbol of great wealth but one whose gold could not assure him happiness. It was in ancient Sardis in the time of Croesus that the first coins of pure gold and pure silver were struck, an important step leading to a monetary economy.

Gold and silver are similar on a chemical level and are often found together forming an alloy known as electrum. Electrum wasn't always desirable for trade. As coinage gained popularity, a way to standardize the purity of gold and silver was needed. The first technique of gold parting was invented: salt cementation. Salt cementation involves adding gold/silver alloy, some burnt clay or old brick dust, salt, and urine to moisten it. The mixture is sealed and then heated, but not hot enough to melt the gold – less than 1000°C.

In about 24 hours, the gold will be nearly silver-free at around 90% purity or greater. When heated in the presence of silica and alumina (found in the clay/brick dust), salt breaks down to form hydrochloric acid and chlorine. The acidity in urine helps decomposition. The hydrochloric acid from this reaction interacts with the silver to create silver chloride, which separates from the gold. When that occurs, the reaction is volatile – which is why it's sealed. After removing the gold, one can convert the silver chloride back into silver, giving you two separate, purified samples of precious metals for coins. Scholars argue that the gold standard of Croesus was introduced in stages, designed to recall the circulating electrum staters. Once a sufficient number had been recalled, the new light stater appeared. Though the light stater was produced for a longer period than the heavy stater, the light stater is actually the rarer coin. This NGC Gem MS light stater sold in April 2018 for $180k.

The Succubus - Incubus

A succubus is a demon in female form, or supernatural entity in medieval folklore that appears in dreams and takes the form of a woman in order to seduce men, usually through sex.

A succubus may take a form of a beautiful young girl but closer inspection may reveal deformities of her body, such as bird-like claws or serpentine tails. The male counterpart to the succubus is the incubus. During the time when succubus lore was created, sexual activities that were not purposefully procreative were considered sin. The succubus may have been used by men to retain their faith.

In some stories a succubus collects semen from the men she seduces. The incubi or male demons then use the semen to impregnate human females.

Salacious tales of incubi and succubi have been told for centuries. Some traditions hold that repeated sexual activity with an incubus or succubus may result in the deterioration of health, mental state, or death. One of the earliest mentions of an incubus comes from Mesopotamia on the Sumerian King List, c. 2400 BC, where the hero Gilgamesh's father is listed as Lilu. It is said that Lilu disturbs and seduces women in their sleep, while Lilitu, a female demon, appears to men in their erotic dreams.

Saffron

Saffron, the world’s most expensive spice, is extracted from the flowers of the saffron crocus, Crocus sativus. It has been used for over 50,000 years. Saffron was a precious commodity treasured across ancient civilizations for medicine, dye, perfume, and ritual. It was cultivated and traded extensively.

The first known use by humans of wild crocuses was as pigment for cave paintings, about 50000 years ago in today’s Iraq. Ancient texts from Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia also describe the use of wild crocuses in medicine and dye. Ancient artworks and genetics point to Bronze Age Greece, in 1700 BCE or earlier, as the origin of saffron’s domestication. Domesticated saffron can only be propagated asexually with human help. The process was first described by the Greek philosopher Theophrastus in the fourth century BCE. Today, domesticated saffron is grown for use in cooking and perfumes and as a yellow dye. 16000 flowers, requiring up to 470 person-hours to collect, yield a single kilo, worth between $1300 and $10000.

Dense patches of crocus flowers on the fresco ‘The Saffron Gatherers’ from the island of Santorini (1600 BCE) suggest cultivation.

Around the globe today, all saffron crocuses are effectively clones dating back to saffron’s emergence in ancient times.

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are described in the last book of the New Testament of the Bible, called the Book of Revelation of Jesus Christ to John of Patmos, at 6:1-8.

The chapter tells of a book or scroll in God's right hand that is sealed with seven seals. The Lamb of God opens the first four of the seven seals, which summons four beings that ride out on white, red, black, and pale horses. The four riders are often seen as symbolizing Pestilence, War, Famine, and Death. The Christian apocalyptic vision is that the four horsemen set a divine apocalypse upon the world as harbingers of the Last Judgment.

The rider of the second horse is taken to represent War. His horse is red. The color red, and the rider's possession of a great sword, suggests blood.

The first horseman is called Pestilence, and is associated with infectious disease and plague. "They were given power over a fourth of the earth to kill by sword, famine, plague, and by the wild beasts of the earth." (Revelation 6:7-8). "When He broke the second seal, I heard the second living creature saying, “Come.” And another, a red horse, went out; and to him who sat on it, it was granted to take peace from the earth, and that men would slay one another; and a great sword was given to him."  (Revelation 6:3-4)

Albrecht Dürer, Knight, Death and the Devil, 1513

The End Times will experience the 4 horsemen.

The third horseman rides a black horse and is understood to be Famine as the horseman carries a pair of balances or weighing scales, indicating the way that bread would have been weighed during a famine. "When He broke the third seal, I heard the third living creature saying, “Come.” I looked, and behold, a black horse; and he who sat on it had a pair of scales in his hand." (Revelation 6:5-6)

The fourth and final horseman is named Death. Of all the riders, he is the only one to whom the text explicitly gives a name. Unlike the other three, he is not described carrying a weapon or other object, instead he is followed by Hades. Illustrations commonly depict him carrying a scythe. When the Lamb broke the fourth seal, I heard the voice of the fourth living creature saying, “Come.” I looked, and behold, an ashen horse; and he who sat on it had the name Death; and Hades was following with him.  The four horsemen portray four disastrous occurrences that will take place before the second coming of Jesus Christ.

Gold aureus of Antoninus Pius

Antoninus Pius, also known as Antoninus, was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was one of the Five Good Emperors. About A.D. 141 Antoninus Pius ordered the Roman frontier be pushed northward. A gold aureus alludes to his victory in Britain. The coin was struck circa 143 to 144 A.D., at the Rome Mint. The campaign was successful, establishing the 39-mile-long Antonine Wall some 99 miles north of Hadrian’s wall. The Senate acclaimed Antoninus as Imperator in A.D. 143 for the second time. This coin marks that event, with its depiction of winged Victory holding a trophy symbolizing military success. The aureus made $7,000.

Great Baddow Hoard

The Great Baddow Hoard was found in 2020 and consists of 933 gold staters which date to 60–20 B.C.E. That period saw Iron Age tribes in Britain like the Trinovantes and Catuvellauni starting to mint their own currency, after long importing Celtic coins from overseas. Most of the gold coins were struck in a region associated with the Catuvellauni, likely as tribute payment to the Roman Emperor Julius Caesar following his capture of Eastern Britain. The Museum of Chelmsford, Essex, acquired the Great Baddow Hoard for £250,000 from the National Lottery Heritage Fund.