Decline of Roman coinage

The decline of Roman coinage was driven by currency debasement, where emperors progressively reduced the precious metal content in coins. This brought severe inflation and the erosion of trust. People recognized the lower intrinsic value of the coin, and this weakened the entire economic order. The decline of coinage was a significant contributor to Rome's decline and fall.

A pre-reform denarius of Nero, about 98% pure silver.

For the first 90 years of the Roman Empire the purity of Rome’s silver coinage was 98% or higher. That standard was kept by emperors Augustus, Tiberius (14-37), Caligula (37-41) and Claudius (41-54), and the first decade of Nero's reign (54-68). The Great Fire of Rome in 64 marked the start of a debasement that would eventually bring Rome’s silver coinage to unfathomable depths.

Post-reform denarius of Nero, about 93% pure silver

Nero took the easiest path to raising cash – re-coining old money. Nero reduced the weight of the silver denarius from 1/84th of a Roman pound to 1/96th, lowering its silver content from 98% to 93%. At the same time the reduced weight of the denarius was about 12.5%, which further reduced silver content. Nero also reduced the weight of his gold aurei from 7.8 grams to 7.3 grams.

Nero's reformed coinage was created by recycling older, purer silver, with Republican denarii targeted for reminting.

Nero was overthrown in 68 giving rise to the Year of Four Emperors in 69. Vespasian (69-79), reduced the purity of the denarius to about 90%.

In 107 Trajan (98-117) reduced the purity of the denarius to 88%. From there the purity slid until 148, when Antoninus Pius (138-161) removed 5%. The denarius was now about 84% or 83% pure. The denarius reached about 71% purity near the end of the reign of Commodus (177-192)

Under Septimius Severus (193-211) the purity of the denarius dropped to about 57%. Over the next four decades, the purity of imperial silver coinage continued to slide, dropping steadily until it had reached about 41% purity under Trajan Decius (249-251). Under Trebonianus Gallus (251-253) and Aemilian (253), it sank to about 35% pure. By 268, the double-denarius had slid to a silver content of 5% or less – in some cases dropping to about 2.5%. The "silver" coin was effectively copper with a thin, easily worn-off plating.

Europa

In Greek mythology, Europa was the mother of King Minos of Crete, a woman with Phoenician origin of high lineage, and after whom the continent Europe was named. She was abducted by Zeus in the form of a white bull. Europa's earliest literary reference is in the Iliad, which is commonly dated to the 8th century BC.

Zeus was enamored with Europa and decided to seduce and ravish her. He transformed himself into a tame white bull and mixed in with her father's herds. While Europa and her helpers were gathering flowers, she saw the bull, caressed his flanks, and eventually got onto his back.

Zeus took that opportunity and ran to the sea and swam, with her on his back, to the island of Crete. He then revealed his true identity, and Europa became the first queen of Crete. Zeus later re-created the shape of the white bull in the stars, which is the constellation Taurus. Europa is featured on a circulating commemorative €2 coin first issued in Greece in 2002.

Later she bore Zeus three sons, one of whom, Minos, became ruler of Crete.

Europa is featured on EU five-euro notes. The "Europa series" of banknotes started with the €5 note introduced on May 2, 2013. Her portrait is incorporated into the hologram and watermark as a security feature.

The Rold Hoard

The Rold hoard is a major Viking Age gold hoard discovered in May 2026 near Rold in Himmerland, Northern Denmark. It consists of six solid gold bracelets (totaling 762.5 grams) from 900–1000 CE, making it the third-largest Viking gold find in Denmark’s history. The intact, high-status items were likely buried intentionally as a votive offering. Gold in the Viking Age was held almost exclusively by the highest levels of society. The bracelets feature both twisted and smooth designs, a sign of highly skilled goldsmithing. Archaeologists date the find to the late Viking Age, roughly 900 to 1000 AD.

This was the period when Denmark was consolidating into a single kingdom. Harald Bluetooth marked that shift on the Jelling Stone around 965 AD.

Hermes

To the Greeks he was Hermes. To the Etruscans, he was Turms. To the Romans he was Mercurius.

He played many roles in the myths of ancient people, but as a god of profit and commerce, he was often represented on money. Possibly the earliest coin to depict Hermes is a silver stater of Kaunos dated to c. 490 BCE.

Populonia, an important center of iron production, was one of the few Etruscan cities that issued silver coinage in the fourth century BCE. A didrachm – one of only three known – depicts Turms.

The facing head of Hermes, dated to c. 402-399 BCE. Perhaps the finest image of Hermes on any ancient coin appears on the reverse of a silver stater of Pheneos, c. 360-350 BCE

C. Mamilius Limetanus denarius serratus c. 82 BC. Bust of Mercury

One of the last appearances of Mercury on Roman coinage came during the brief reign of the emperor Trajan Decius. (249-251)

Pheneos produced a small silver obol c. 370-340 BCE

Hermes was often depicted as a young man, wearing traveling clothes, a flat hat known as 'petasus' and winged sandals on his feet. Often, he was depicted having wings attached to his shoulders and hat. He usually held a caduceus, a winged staff with snakes wrapped around it so he could gain access everywhere. This staff helped Hermes to charm the gods. The staff is often mistakenly used as a symbol of medicine.

Sanxingdui relics

A sacrificial altar are among a treasure trove of 13,000 relics dating back over 3,000 years discovered by archaeologists in southwest China. The relics -- many made of gold, bronze and jade -- were unearthed in six sacrificial pits at the Sanxingdui archaeological site, near Chengdu. The Sanxingdui culture left behind no records. It is thought to be part of the ancient kingdom of Shu. It ruled in the western Sichuan basin along the upper stream of the Yangtze River until it was conquered in 316 BC.

Researchers found a turtleshell-shaped box made of bronze and jade. It's the first time such an object has been found.

In 2021 a partial, 3,000-year-old ceremonial mask weighing over half a kilo of 85% pure gold was found. A gold scepter is the largest ever found in China from this period.

Ancient Glass - “Drink That You May Live"

The history of glass-making can be traced back to 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. They may have been producing second-rate copies of glass objects from Egypt, where the craft originated.

Cameo Glass Skyphos, Roman, c. 25 B.C - 25 C.E

The earliest known glass objects, of the mid second millennium BC, were beads. Glass products remained a luxury until late Bronze Age civilizations seemingly brought glass-making to a halt. An exhibit at Yale University Art Gallery presented an array of jewelry, cups, bowls, pitchers, flasks, bottles, cosmetic vials and jars from the ancient world. The title of the exhibit, “Drink That You May Live” was drawn from one of the objects in the exhibit — a line also seen on other Roman drinking vessels of antiquity.

Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies across the globe for sharp cutting tools and was extensively traded. As glassmaking processes grew and changed, glass came to replace silver and gold as the most popular medium for drinking vessels. By the 1st century AD, glass blowing emerged. Production of raw glass was undertaken with large scale manufacturing, primarily in Alexandria. Glass was a commonly available material in the Roman world.

Inscribed Cup, Roman, Eastern Mediterranean, possibly Syrian, 3rd–4th century A.D. Free-blown glass with gold leaf.

Jar with Sixteen Handles, Roman, Eastern Mediterranean, 4th–5th century A.D. Free-blown glass

A bowl from Hellenistic or Roman society, Eastern Mediterranean, late 2nd century B.C.–early 1st century A.D.

Roman cobalt blue glass amphoriskos

Year of the Six Emperors

The Year of the Six Emperors occurred in 238 AD when Maximinus Thrax, Gordian I, Gordian II, Pupienus, Balbinus, and Gordian III were recognized as emperors.

The Year of the Six Emperors began during the short reign of Maximinus Thrax, who had ruled since 235. Thrax’s reign is considered by many scholars to be the start of the Crisis of the 3rd Century (235–84 AD), during which the Empire was beset by invasions, plague, civil wars and economic difficulties.

An uprising against corrupt tax officials in the province of Africa spurred locals to proclaim the provincial governor and his son as co-emperors. The Senate supported the claim, causing Maximinus Thrax to march on Rome. Forces of the governor of Numidia entered Carthage in support of Maximinus, and easily defeated the Gordians. The younger was killed in battle and the elder committed suicide by hanging on hearing news of the defeat.

After the African revolt was crushed, the Senate, fearing reprisal from Maximinus for supporting the now-dead Gordians, proclaimed Pupienus and Balbinus as new emperors and charged them with defending the capital.

The Senate elevated the 13-year-old Gordian III, grandson of Gordian I. During the subsequent siege of Aquileia, Maximinus was assassinated by his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus ruled for 99 days before being murdered by the Praetorian Guard, leaving Gordian III the sole ruler of the empire.

The exact fate of Gordian III is unclear, but he was most likely killed at the Battle of Misiche in early 244 AD.

The Lava hoard - Corsica hoard

The Lava hoard is a Roman treasure of coins and gold plate that was discovered underwater in the small Gulf of Lava, southern Corsica, France, probably in 1958. Also known as the Corsica hoard, It's one of world's most important archaeological finds.

The “Corsica Hoard” was first discovered in the late 1950s by two urchin divers. Under French law, all underwater archaeological finds belong to the state. The treasure was dispersed into many private and public collections. 41 aurei and large gold medallions were sold to collectors. In 1986 it was revealed hundreds of high-grade Roman gold coins dating from 262 to 272 CE had been found.

A extremely rare gold medallion or 'multiple solidus' of Claudius Gothicus. 268 AD. Equivalent to 8 regular gold solidi. 38.83 grams.

450 pieces remain in public hands. Its thought the hoard contained at least 1,400 coins, comprised of coins from Gallienus, Claudius II, Quintillus, and Aurelianus. Archeologists date the wreck to either late 272 or early 273 CE. The gold coins found cover the period from the AD 262 Decennalia of Gallienus to the reign of Aurelian in AD 272.

Aurelian: Rome's most underrated Emperor

Lucius Domitius Aurelianus grew up in the most turbulent phase of the Crisis of the Third Century. In fifty years, twenty-six men claimed the Imperial throne. Roman emperor from 270 to 275, Aurelianus won an unprecedented series of military victories which reunited the Roman Empire after it had nearly disintegrated from barbarian invasions and internal revolts. For his success in restoring the Empire, Aurelian was honored with the title Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World").

Aurelian and the personification of Sol defeat the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG – oriens Augusti: the rising sun/star of Augustus.

He defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian restored the Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of the Palmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he conquered the Gallic Empire in the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. His successes were instrumental in ending the crisis. His monetary reformation included the introduction of antoniniani containing 5% silver. They bore the mark XXI which meant that twenty one of such coins would contain the same silver quantity of an old silver denarius. The severity of the economic situation Aurelian faced came as the Emperor struggled to introduce the new "good" coin by recalling all the old "bad" coins.

An opportunity to attack the Sassanid Empire in 275 saw Aurelian set out for another campaign against the Sassanids. He would never reach Asia. A plot involving notarius Mucapor and other high-ranking officers of the Praetorian Guard, who feared punishment from the emperor, murdered him shortly after October 275.

A hoard of aureus of Aurelian were discovered as part of the Lava Treasure in Corsica, France, in the 1980s.