Murum aries attigit - 'The ram has touched the wall'

Murum aries attigit is Latin for 'the ram has touched the wall.' It refers to a strict Roman military ultimatum: once a battering ram made contact with a city's fortifications, the offer of surrender and mercy was revoked, and the city would be sacked.

The ram touching the wall referred to the battering ram in an assault. The Roman battering ram (or aries) was a massive siege engine used to breach fortress walls and gates. It featured a heavy timber beam with a reinforced metal tip, suspended on ropes inside a mobile wooden shelter called a testudo ("tortoise") Romans held that once an assault had begun, no mercy or quarter would be given. When a city resisted a Roman siege and was breached, standard protocol was complete devastation.

Soldiers were often ordered to kill every living thing they encountered until the commander gave the signal to stop, at which point the survivors were enslaved as war booty.

The term "missio" refers to the sign that a gladiator may give when they cede a fight to their opponent. It serves as both an acknowledgement of defeat and a plea for mercy.

The loser asks the munerarius to stop the fight and send him alive (missus) from the arena. If he had not fallen he could be "sent away standing" (stans missus). The editor took the crowd's response into consideration in deciding whether to let the loser live. "Without missio" was a fight with no possibility of a reprieve for the loser.

Siege of Jerusalem - Vespasian

Vespasian (AD 69-79). AR denarius (19mm, 3.40 gm, 7h). NGC Choice AU★ 5/5 - 5/5, Fine Style. Rome, AD 79. IMP CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG, laureate head of Vespasian left / TR POT X-COS VIIII, radiate figure standing facing, grounded spear in right hand, parazonium in left, atop rostral column ornamented with ships' prows and a large anchor. RIC II 120. Wisps of mint toning on hematite dies. $14,640. The lifetime issue was Vespasian's last. Here.

Descended from a family of small entrepreneurs and tax farmers in the Sabine hill country north of Rome, Flavius Vespasianus was born in AD 9 and rose to prominence in the Roman Army. He gained distinction during Claudius' invasion of Britain in AD 43-44 and won a Consulship in AD 51, but fell from imperial favor when he dozed off during one of Nero's musical performances. When a Jewish faction in the province of Judaea rebelled and massacred the local Roman garrison in AD 66, Nero sent Vespasian at the head of three legions to crush the revolt. Through his able son Titus, Vespasian gained the friendship and support of Mucianus, governor of Syria, who had another three legions at his disposal. The collapse of Nero's regime in AD 68 led to many claims, with Galba, Otho, and Vitellius following in quick succession, Vespasian ultimately won supreme power.

June 23rd in ancient Rome marks the death of Emperor Vespasian in 79 CE. A pivotal figure, Vespasian founded the Flavian Dynasty. He is best remembered for commissioning the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre). Nearing his death, he famously joked, "Vae, puto deus fio" ("Oh dear, I think I'm becoming a god"). Iudaea Devicta is 'Defeat of Judea.'

In 70 CE Roman forces led by son and future emperor Titus breached the second of three fortified walls surrounding Jerusalem.

The first coin attributed to Pompey is a rare gold aureus, probably issued at Rome on his triumph in 71 BCE. Five are known.

In 63 BC Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem. The Romans intially ruled through a local client king but later Jerusalem became a directly ruled province, marked by oppressive governors. Discord culminated in 66 CE in the First Jewish Revolt. The revolt was successful at first: Jewish forces quickly expelled the Romans from Jerusalem, and a revolutionary government was formed. Nero sent general Vespasian to meet the Jewish forces, an endeavour that pushed the majority of the rebels into Jerusalem by the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in 69 CE.

In April 70 CE Roman general Titus besieged Jerusalem. Coinciding with Passover, the Romans allowed pilgrims to enter the city but refused to let them leave—thus depleting supplies in Jerusalem. Within the walls, the militant Zealots struggled with other Jewish factions, which weakened the resistance further. The Romans encircled the city with a wall to cut off supplies to the city completely. The Flavians seized power amidst the Year of the Four Emperors in 69 CE, and used the conquest of Jerusalem as imperial propaganda. Judaea Capta coinage was issued in all denominations.

The immense wealth plundered from the Temple helped finance monuments in Rome, including the Colosseum and the Arch of Titus.

By August 70 CE the Romans had breached the final defenses and massacred much of the remaining population. They also destroyed the Second Temple. The loss of the Temple is still mourned by Jews today during the fast of Tisha be-Av.

Relief on the Arch of Titus depicting temple spoils of 71 CE.

In 2017 excavations at Mount Zion in Jerusalem discovered a gold coin bearing the likeness of Roman Emperor Nero. The coin had been struck in either 56 and 57 AD. The aureus bears the portrait of a young Nero as Caesar. Researchers said that the coin was likely part of a Jewish store of wealth, hidden before their mansions were razed – along with the rest of the city – by Titus and the Roman legions. The coin was likely overlooked by looting Roman soldiers.

Speculatores - Spies of the Roman Empire

Coin of Marcus Antonius with the legend “Chortis Speculatorum” on the reverse, 31 BC.

Originally utilized as frontline military scouts, elite operatives evolved into the emperor’s spies and political executioners. Speculatores formed an efficient domestic intelligence network that kept the imperial throne secure through surveillance, tracking, and terror. The name speculatores comes from 'speculari', which literally means 'to observe.' Ancient writers used the term speculatores when talking about soldiers on reconnaissance tasks. By the imperial period, it came to be used for a special unit within the Roman Army. Speculatores not only scouted ahead for the Roman army, but also went deep behind enemy lines.

During the reign of Augustus, speculatores were formalized in a new form. They were incorporated into the emperor’s personal administration alongside the Praetorian Guard. They were given new tasks, including escorting prisoners, assisting in arrests, transmitting secret orders, and, in some cases, providing personal security for the emperor and his representatives. Following Augustus’ reforms, a contingent of about ten speculatores was included in each Roman legion, one in each cohort. Speculators were commanded by a trecenarius, the highest-ranking centurion in the elite Praetorian Guard. Under Tiberius, the use of speculatores became increasingly prominent. This was tied to the rise of Lucius Aelius Sejanus as commander of the Praetorian Guard. With the complete trust of a highly paranoid emperor, Sejanus used the speculatores as the world's first secret police.

Tacitus specifically described delatores, professional informers who accused senators and elites of treason. The accusations were made under the maiestas law, which treated traitors as public enemies. Although this law had long existed, under Tiberius it became a new weapon of tyranny. Up to 80 people were accused of treason under Tiberius, 18 were officially executed, and another 10 or so committed suicide before they could be convicted.

Sejanus met an ironic fate. In AD 31, Tiberius suddenly turned against Sejanus following intelligence passed to him by sister-in-law Antonia the Younger. A message was read in the senate condemning Sejanus, who was arrested and sentenced to death. His supporters and family members were exile. After this episode, Tiberius fell into an even deeper paranoia, and spent the rest of his reign in isolation. Speculatores were not only spies, but also hired assassins in the service of the Roman emperors. Nero used speculatores, especially after the Pisonian Conspiracy of AD 65.

As the Empire grew, so did the need for a more extensive intelligence network. That role gradually fell to frumentarii. This unit was originally made up of soldiers responsible for overseeing the collection and transport of grain for the Roman army. They began their history as a courier service and developed into an imperial spying agency. They also carried out assassinations. The frumentarii were headquartered in the Castra Peregrina ("camp of the strangers") in Rome situated on the Caelian Hill. Their camp commander was the princeps peregrinorum. Ancient sources say their reputation quickly deteriorated. They were disbanded under the reign of Diocletian.

Constantine I solidus

Today (October 27) 312 AD Constantine is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

According to historian Eusebius of Caesarea, Constantine and his army saw a luminous cross above the sun in the afternoon sky with the Greek inscription "Εν τούτῳ νίκα" ("By this, conquer") Writers Lactantius and Eusebius both noted that Constantine dreamed of Christ that night, who instructed him to mark his soldiers' shields with a Christian symbol. Constantine ordered his men to paint the Chi-Rho (a monogram of the first two letters of Christ's name in Greek) on their shields and standards before defeating Maxentius.

------------------------- A Roman solidus of Emperor Constantine I was dug up from a field in Somerset in 2019. Constantine the Great ruled between 306 and 337 AD.

The coin was found a foot below the surface of a field near Wanstrow, Somerset. The high grade example made £12k. On the reverse is a rare portrayal of Constantine riding his horse in battle holding a spear and shield with two fallen enemy soldiers. It commemorates his victory over Maxentius at Milvian bridge outside Rome on October 28, 312. Constantine I become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. The routed Maxentius drowned in the Tiber trying to escape.

Constantine enacted reforms. To combat inflation he reintroduced the solidus. The solidus was introduced by Diocletian in small issues and later reintroduced for mass circulation by Constantine the Great in AD 312. Constantine's solidus was struck at a rate of 72 to a Roman pound (326.6 gm) of gold or about 4.5 grams. The new gold coin became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years.

Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, which he did on his deathbed. Constantine was a ruler of major importance, and a controversial figure.

Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola (Pula, Croatia) in May or June 326. In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta killed in an overheated bath. Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. More bloodshed soon followed.

This Maxentius (AD 307-312) AV quaternio or medallion of 4-aurei, weighing 21.12 grams. NGC MS 5/5 - 2/5, is exceptionally rare – it is one of two known. It fetched $212k in 2022. The medallion was issued as a commemorative during the restoration of the temple of Urbis Veneris, erected by Hadrian in AD 135 and damaged by fire in 307 AD. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c. 283 – 28 October 312) was the son of former Emperor Maximian and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius. The latter part of his reign was preoccupied with civil war. Defeated at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, Maxentius was the last emperor to permanently reside in Rome.

Decline of Roman coinage

The decline of Roman coinage was driven by currency debasement.

Emperors progressively reduced the precious metal content in coins. This brought severe inflation and the erosion of trust as people recognized the lower intrinsic value of the coin. This weakened the entire Roman economic order. The debasement of coinage was a major contributor to Rome's decline and fall. For the first 90 years of the Roman Empire the purity of Rome’s silver coinage was 98% or higher. That standard was kept by emperors Augustus, Tiberius (14-37), Caligula (37-41) and Claudius (41-54), and the first decade of Nero's reign (54-68). The Great Fire of Rome in 64 marked the start of a debasement that brought Rome’s silver coinage to unfathomable depths.

Nero took the easiest path to raising cash – re-coining old money. Nero's reformed coinage was created by recycling older, purer silver, with Republican denarii targeted for reminting. Nero reduced the weight of the silver denarius from 1/84th of a Roman pound to 1/96th, lowering its silver content from 98% to 93%.

A pre-reform denarius of Nero, about 98% pure silver.

At the same time the weight of the denarius fell 12.5%, further reducing silver content. Nero reduced the weight of aurei from 7.8 g to 7.3 g. Post-reform denarius of Nero, about 93% silver.

Nero was overthrown in 68, giving rise to the Year of Four Emperors in 69. Vespasian (69-79), reduced the purity of the denarius to about 90%.

In 107 Trajan (98-117) reduced the purity of the denarius to 88%. From there the purity slid until 148, when Antoninus Pius (138-161) removed 5%. The denarius was now about 84% or 83% pure. The denarius reached about 71% purity near the end of the reign of Commodus (177-192) The aureus was now 7.15 to 7.30 gm.

Under Septimius Severus (193-211) the purity of the denarius dropped to about 57%. Over the next four decades, the purity of imperial silver coinage continued to slide, dropping steadily until it had reached about 41% purity under Trajan Decius (249-251). Under Trebonianus Gallus (251-253) and Aemilian (253), it sank to about 35% pure. By 268, the double-denarius had slid to a silver content of 5% or less – in some cases dropping to about 2.5%. The "silver" coin was effectively copper with a thin, easily worn-off plating.

Kerala’s Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple

The Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple has great religious significance to Hindus. The temple is known for its six subterranean “kallara” or vaults. In 2011 five of the temple’s six vaults, designated A, B, C, D, E and F, were opened. In them lay around 3,000 tonnes of gold, coins, sacks of diamonds and jewellery. Treasures include gold in the form of pots and jars, crowns, religious iconography, as well as gold coins from civilizations around the world including the Romans, French, Dutch, Venetians and the Mughals. Some of the items in the vaults date back to 200 BC. All this does not include what is thought to be stored inside vault B.

Ancient legend said if the vault were ever opened it would bring devastation to the world. Vault B has indeed been opened several times in recent history as is evident from the many missing items, according to inspectors. The temple is the only temple in India dedicated to Lord Vishnu in a reclining (Anantha Shayana) posture. Multiple idols, most gold plated, represent Lord Vishnu.

The world's richest temple had a cash flow problem in 2020. In the wake of depleting revenue amid lockdown restrictions, the Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple slipped into a deep financial hole. Management plans to approach the trust controlled by the Travancore royal family for aid.

The temple and its assets belong to Lord Padmanabhaswamy, and are controlled by a trust run by the Royal family. In June 2011, the Supreme Court directed authorities to open the secret chambers of the temple for inspection of the items kept inside. Some had not been opened in centuries.

The review of the temple's underground vaults led to the enumeration of a vast inventory of the temple's assets, which consist of gold, jewels, and other valuables. 18th century Napoleonic era coins were found, as well as a three-and-a-half foot tall solid gold idol of Mahavishnu studded with rubies and emeralds. Ceremonial attire adorning the idol was in the form of a gold anki weighing 30 kg.(66 lb).

It is estimated that the value of the items is close to 1.2 lakh crore (US$22 billion) This makes the temple the wealthiest in the world. The treasures accumulated for centuries, put there by generations of the Maharajahs of Travancore.

Vault B door with Cobra guardians

It was announced that a new hidden treasure vault had been discovered beyond the already documented Vault B. Adding to recent treasure findings in other vaults, researchers are estimating the total treasure could total over $1.5 trillion. The temple has been shrouded in mystery and superstition. Two enormous Cobras are rumored to be protecting the innermost hidden chamber.

Legend holds that anyone who opens the vault will be met with certain doom.