Gold of Croesus

Croesus is credited with issuing the first true gold coins with a standardized purity for general circulation.

Croesus was the king of Lydia from 560 to 547 BC until his defeat by the Persians. In Greek and Persian cultures the name of Croesus became a synonym for great wealth. His wealth came from the River Pactolus in which the King Midas washed his hands to rid himself of the 'Midas Touch'.

Around 550 BC Croesus paid for the construction of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Croesus is a legendary figure, but was an actual king who ruled from Sardis.

Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis

Croesus claimed to be happy. Solon disagreed saying no one could be said to have lived a happy life until death, as the living dealt with an unknowable future.

When Croesus learned of the Persians under Cyrus he sent to the Oracle at Delphi to divine whether he should wage war against the Persians. The oracle replied: "If Croesus goes to war he will destroy a great empire."

Tholos of Delphi

Pleased by this answer, Croesus met the Persian army at the Halys River. The battle was a draw. Cyrus pressed the attack, massacred Croesus’ cavalry by mounting his own on dromedaries (camels - whose scent frightened Lydian horses) and captured Croesus. Arm of a soldier, killed in the battle between Croesus and Cyrus. He died clutching a sling stone in his hand.

Croesus was dragged before Cyrus in chains. Cyrus ordered Croesus to be burned alive. Croesus called out for aid from Apollo. "O Solon! Solon! Solon!" Cyrus asked a translator what this meant and Croesus told the story of Solon’s visit, how no man can be counted happy until after his death, and how he was misled by the Oracle at Delphi. Cyrus was moved by this story and Croesus was released. He sent him to Delphi for an answer from the gods as to why he was betrayed. The answer came back that the Oracle had spoken only truth - a great empire had, in fact, been destroyed by Croesus – and it was not the fault of the gods if man misinterpreted the words.

Greek literature for generations held up Croesus as a symbol of great wealth but one whose gold could not assure him happiness. It was in ancient Sardis in the time of Croesus that the first coins of pure gold and pure silver were struck, an important step leading to a monetary economy.

Gold and silver are similar on a chemical level and are often found together forming an alloy known as electrum. Electrum wasn't always desirable for trade. As coinage gained popularity, a way to standardize the purity of gold and silver was needed. The first technique of gold parting was invented: salt cementation. Salt cementation involves adding gold/silver alloy, some burnt clay or old brick dust, salt, and urine to moisten it. The mixture is sealed and then heated, but not hot enough to melt the gold – less than 1000°C.

In about 24 hours, the gold will be around 90% purity or greater. When heated in the presence of silica and alumina (found in the clay/brick dust), salt breaks down to form hydrochloric acid and chlorine.

The acidity in urine helps decomposition. The hydrochloric acid from this reaction interacts with the silver to create silver chloride, which separates from the gold. When that occurs, the reaction is volatile – which is why it's sealed. After removing the gold, one converts the silver chloride back into silver, giving two separate, purified samples of precious metals for coins. Scholars argue that the gold standard of Croesus was introduced in stages, designed to recall the circulating electrum staters. Once a sufficient number had been recalled, the new light stater appeared. Though the light stater was produced for a longer period than the heavy stater, the light stater is actually the rarer coin. This NGC Gem MS light stater sold in April 2018 for $180k. A magnificent Lydian “missing link” early Croesus stater was a top attraction at Heritage on Jan. 12 2026. The Prototype Lydian Croesus AV Stater (c. 561–546 BC) is a landmark, extremely rare heavy gold coin of 10.77gm from the Sardes mint, representing the world's first true bimetallic coinage. $440,000.

2000 yo granite sarcophagus in Alexandria

In 2018 archaeologists in Egypt opened a mysterious ancient black granite sarcophagus. The massive coffin was excavated in the city of Alexandria. 3 skeletons and sewage was found inside.

A layer of mortar between the lid and the body of the sarcophagus indicated that it has not been opened since it was closed more than 2,000 years ago. The sarcophagus was found buried 16.4 feet below the surface. A carved alabaster head, which may depict one of the tomb’s occupants, was also discovered. The Ministry of Antiquities said one of the skeletons bore an arrow wound, evidence the men might have been soldiers. Measuring nine feet long, the black granite coffin is the largest ever to have been discovered in Alexandria. It was speculated that it might have contained the remains of Alexander the Great, who legend rumored is buried there.

Three drawings, incised on three sheets of gold, were discovered in the sarcophagus. Researchers also learned more about the three skeletons. One came from a woman who was between 20 and 25 years old when she died, while the other two came from men who were in their 30s or 40s.

The enigmatic drawings show what may be the seed pod of an opium poppy within a shrine. Opium was popular at the time. The skull of one of the men has a hole. He may have undergone "trepanation," a medical procedure often used in ancient times.

Bulgarian Valley of Kings

The Valley of the Thracian Rulers (or Kings) in central Bulgaria, near Kazanlak, represents a major concentration of Thracian elite tombs from the 5th–3rd centuries BC.

A four-wheeled wooden chariot, its intricately carved bronze plating and fittings, plus the skeletal remains of two horses and a dog have been preserved in situ instead of being removed to a museum. Thracian chariots were often buried with up to eight horses and their elaborately decorated bridles. Thracians established a powerful kingdom in the fifth century B.C. The capital was thought to be Seutopolis, whose ancient ruins lie under a large artificial lake near Shipka, in an area dubbed 'the Bulgarian Valley of Kings' for its many rich tombs. It is believed that there are over 1500 funeral mounds in the region, with only 300 being researched so far.

The Kazanlak Tomb was found accidentally on 19 April 1944 by soldiers who were digging for entrenchment against aircraft. It dates to the first half of 3rd century BC.

The Svetitsa mound revealed a spectacular gold mask, which was laid on the face of the deceased person. It was made of a solid 673-g gold plate with individual features - thick hair, beard and mustache, the eyes half-closed. This is one of the earliest and richest tombs discovered in the Valley.

"To Seuthes," was written in one of the silver vessels and on a bronze helmet. It led some historians to suppose that the tomb belonged to King Seuthes III (ca. 330-300/295 BC). See ---- https://ancientbulgaria.bg/listings/valley-thracian-kings

Salt Mining

Prior to industrialization, it was expensive, dangerous, and labor intensive to harvest the mass quantities of salt necessary for food preservation and seasoning. This made salt an extremely valuable commodity in ancient times. The Bible compliments some men as being ‘the salt of the earth’. Entire economies were based solely on salt production and trade.

Ancient method of boiling brine into pure salt in China.

In the Iron Age, the British evaporated salt by boiling seawater or brine from salt spri­ngs in small clay pots over open fires. Roman salt-making entailed boiling seawater in lead-lined pans. In ancient Rome, salt on the table was a mark of a very rich patron; those who sat nearer the host were "above the salt," and those less favored were "below the salt".

The oldest salt mine known in Azerbaijan.

Ancient Roman Glass Salt Dishes

Roman prisoners were given the task of salt mining, and life expectancy was low. Rapid dehydration caused by constant contact with the salt and accidental excessive sodium intake was fatal. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder stated in his Natural History's discussion of sea water, that "[I]n Rome ... the soldier's pay was originally salt and the word 'salary' derives from it ..."

Roman salt pans in Hortales.

The oldest of the salt men found has been carbon dated to 9550 B.C.

While bulldozing salt from the Chehrabad Salt Mine, Iranian miners uncovered the sixth "salt man" to be found in the last fifteen years. These "salt men" are ancient corpses killed or crushed in the cave and mummified by the extreme conditions. Hair, flesh and bone are all preserved by the dry salinity of the cave, and even internal organs such as stomachs and colons have been found intact. The first salt mummy, dated to 300 A.D., was discovered in 1993, sporting a long white beard, iron knives and a single gold earring. In 2004 another mummy was discovered only 50 feet away, followed by another in 2005 and a "teenage" boy mummy later that year.

Legio IX Hispana - 9th Legion

Legio IX Hispana ("9th Legion – Spanish") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army that existed from the 1st century BC until at least AD 120. The legion fought in various provinces of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire.

Legio IX Hispana was stationed in Britain following the Roman invasion in 43 AD. The Caesarian Ninth Legion fought in the battles of Dyrrhachium and Pharsalus (48 BC) and in the African campaign of 46 BC. After his final victory, Caesar disbanded the legion.

Octavian (Augustus) later recalled the veterans of the Ninth to fight against the rebellion of Sextus Pompeius. The Ninth remained with Octavian in his war of 31 BC against Mark Antony and fought by his side in the Battle of Actium.

The legion was sent to Hispania to take part in the campaign against the Cantabrians (25–13 BC). The Ninth participated in the invasion of Caledonia in 82–83. The legion narrowly escaped complete destruction after a surprise attack at night on their fort. The last attested activity of the Ninth in Britain is during the rebuilding in stone of the legionary fortress at York (Eboracum) in 108. The last records came from Nijmegen and date 120. These are the latest records of Legion IX. It's fate remains speculation.

The Oxus Treasure

The Oxus treasure is a hoard of 180 pieces of metalwork in gold and silver from the Achaemenid Persian period, found by the Oxus river in 1880 in Takht-i Kuwad, Tadjikistan. It is the world's most important collection of gold and silver to have survived from the Achaemenid period.

The Achaemenid Dynasty built an empire (559–330 BC) which, at its peak, spanned three continents.

Cyrus the Great

The Achaemenid dynasty ruled the Persian Empire, which stretched from Egypt and Thrace in the west to Central Asia and the Indus Valley in the east. In land mass, the Achaemenid Empire was the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen until 331-330 BC, when Alexander the Great toppled it on his eastward march from the Mediterranean through Afghanistan to India. The Persian Empire became the first to govern many ethnic groups on the principle of equal rights, as long as taxes were paid and the peace kept.

The king didn't interfere with the local customs and religions of its subject states, a unique quality that fostered rapid growth.

The treasure is thought to have once been housed in a temple which was looted and the hoard then buried to be retrieved later. The British Museum has nearly all the surviving metalwork from the hoard.