Ancient 'Kungas' explained

Mesopotamians were using hybrids of domesticated donkeys and wild asses to pull their war wagons 4,500 years ago — at least 500 years before horses were bred for the purpose. Analysis of ancient DNA from animal bones unearthed in northern Syria resolves a long-standing question of just what "kungas", described in ancient sources as pulling war wagons, were. The new study shows that kungas were strong, fast and sterile hybrids of a female domestic donkey and a male Syrian wild ass.

Ancient records say kungas were highly prized and very expensive. This can be explained by the difficult process of breeding them. A male wild ass had to be captured, and that was a difficult task because wild asses could run faster than donkeys and kungas. They were also impossible to tame. Kungas were the earliest hybrids ever produced by humans.

Kudos to @DrHughT for the nifty video.

History of Blue

Egyptian Juglet, ca. 1750–1640 B.C.

Blue is considered to be the first synthetically produced color pigment. Egyptian blue (cuprorivaite) was created around 2,200 B.C. It was made from ground limestone mixed with sand and a copper mineral, such as azurite or malachite, then heated between 1470 and 1650°F. The result was an opaque blue glass which was then crushed and combined with thickening agents such as egg whites to create a paint or glaze.

The history of ultramarine began around 6,000 years ago when the semi-precious gemstone it was made from—lapis lazuli—began to be imported by the Egyptians from Afghanistan. The Egyptians tried and failed to turn it into a paint, with each attempt resulting in gray. Instead, they used it to make jewelry and headdresses. Also known as “true blue” lapis lazuli first appeared as a pigment in the 6th century and was used in Buddhist paintings in Afghanistan. It was renamed ultramarine—in Latin: ultramarinus, meaning “beyond the sea”. It remained extremely expensive until a synthetic ultramarine was invented in 1826 by a French chemist, who then named it “French Ultramarine.” Cobalt blue dates back to the 8th and 9th centuries, and was then used to color ceramics and jewelry.

A purer alumina-based version was later discovered in 1802 with commercial production beginning in France in 1807.

Constantine I solidus

A Roman solidus of Emperor Constantine I was dug up from a field in Somerset in 2019. Constantine the Great ruled between 306 and 337 AD. The coin was found 12 inches below the surface of a field near Wanstrow, Somerset. The high grade example was estimated at £10k-12k.

On the reverse is a rare portrayal of Constantine riding his horse in battle holding a spear and shield with two fallen enemy soldiers. It commemorates a victory over Maxentius at Milvian bridge outside Rome on October 28, 312. Constantine I become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. The routed Maxentius drowned in the Tiber trying to escape the battle.

Constantine enacted reforms. To combat inflation he reintroduced the solidus. The solidus was introduced by Diocletian in small issues and later reintroduced for mass circulation by Constantine the Great in c. AD 312. Constantine's solidus was struck at a rate of 72 to a Roman pound (326.6 g) of gold or about 4.5 grams. The new gold coin became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years.

Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, which he did on his deathbed.

Constantine was a ruler of major importance, and a controversial figure. Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola (Pula, Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta killed in an overheated bath. Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. More bloodshed followed.

This Maxentius (AD 307-312) AV quaternio or medallion of 4-aurei, weighing 21.12 grams. NGC MS 5/5 - 2/5, is exceptionally rare – it is one of just two known. It fetched $212k in 2022.

The medallion was issued as a commemorative during the restoration of the temple of Urbis Veneris, erected by Hadrian in AD 135 and damaged by fire in 307 AD. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c. 283 – 28 October 312) was the son of former Emperor Maximian and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius. The latter part of his reign was preoccupied with civil war. Defeated at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, Maxentius was the last emperor to permanently reside in Rome.

Black Death

The Black Death plague arrived in western Europe in 1347 and in England in 1348. It faded away in the early 1350s. The Black Death, or ‘pestilencia’ was the worst catastrophe in recorded history. It destroyed a higher proportion of the population than any other single known event. One observer noted ‘the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead.’ Old and young, men and women: all of society – royalty, peasants, archbishops, monks, nuns and parish clergy. None were immune to the Black Death. In Europe it is thought that some 50 million people died.

Researchers simulated Black Death outbreaks. The model that focused on fleas and ticks on humans was the most accurate for explaining the spread of the disease.

In Medieval times people believed that the Black Death came from God, and responded with prayers. Rats have long been blamed for spreading the Black Death. A study suggests that rats weren’t the main carriers of fleas and lice that spread the plague ... it was humans.

The Black Death was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which originated in Asia and spread westward along trade routes.

Volubilis

Volubilis is a partly excavated Berber-Roman city in Morocco near the city of Meknes. Built in a fertile agricultural area, it developed from the 3rd century BC onward as a Berber, then proto-Carthaginian, settlement before being the capital of the kingdom of Mauretania. It grew rapidly under Roman rule from the 1st century AD onward and expanded to cover about 100 acres with a 2.6 km circuit of walls. The city gained a number of major public buildings in the 2nd century, including a basilica, temple and triumphal arch.

Prosperity came from Rome's demand for grain and olives. This trade prompted the construction of fine houses with large mosaic floors. The city fell to local tribes around 285 and was never retaken by Rome because of its remoteness and indefensibility.

Despite evidence of ecological destruction, Volubilis grew in prosperity, thriving for the first two centuries of the imperial era. A main street, the Decumanus, had broad sidewalks lined with shops and the houses of the wealthy. At one end of the street was the imposing Arch of Caracalla.

At its peak in the late 2nd century, Volubulis was home to some 20,000 inhabitants. Volubilis was under threat from Berber tribes. It slipped out of imperial control, falling to local tribes in 285 CE. Volubilis was now deemed too remote to be retaken, lying beyond the frontiers of Rome’s shrunken borders in Africa. Despite the centuries since its abandonment, Volubilis remains one of the best-preserved Roman cities in Africa. Several houses with mosaics and large mosaic floors have been excavated. The grandest of them is the House of Orpheus.

Herculaneum beach

The beach at the Herculaneum archaeological park, located in Campania, opened in June 2024 after a multi-year restoration project. Herculaneum lay buried under 35 meters of solidified ash until it was discovered by chance in 1709 as a worker drilled a well for a monastery.

Digs in the 1980s and '90s uncovered the skeletons of more than 300 people in stone boathouses near the beach. They died from the heat as they awaited rescue by Pliny the Elder.

Work at the Antica Spiaggia area began in January 2022. It was already partially excavated in the 1980s. Dozens of skeletons were found, including the famed 'Ring Lady,' named for the rings on her fingers. Herculaneum was much closer to Vesuvius than Pompeii, and was buried by pyroclastic surges. Excavations unearthed lavish villas, organic matter such as fruit and bread, wooden furniture, and hundreds of charred papyrus scrolls.

Evidence was found of high temperatures on the skeletons of those found in the arched vaults on the seashore, which is now 500 metres inland, as well as the existence of carbonized wood in the boathouses, which became their tombs. The beach is now about four metres below current sea levels.

In 2021, the skeleton of a man dubbed the “last fugitive,” was found. Its believed he had been attempting to escape toward the sea with his valuables. The man was aged between 40 and 45 and was found with a heavily blackened skull and bones with numerous heat-induced fractures. Under the left arm of the skeleton was a cloth shoulder bag inside which was a wooden box containing objects in metal, pieces of cloth, and traces of gold. He suffered the same fate as the others. The extremely high temperatures of the pyroclastic flow caused human tissue to instantly vaporize and the skeleton was imprisoned in a mass of ash, gas and debris.

Dubbed the ‘Herculaneum 300’, their remains were found just four miles (6.43 km) from Mount Vesuvius. Historians have suggested the group was minutes away from being rescued by Pliny the Elder, commander of the local naval fleet. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote two letters describing the eruption, both of which have great historical significance due to their accurate description of the eruption.

Claudius

Bust of Claudius at the Naples National Archaeological Museum

Claudius (10 BC – AD 54) was Roman emperor from AD 41 to 54. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul, the first (and until Trajan, only) Roman emperor to be born outside Italy. His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus' sister, and he was the great-great grandnephew of Gaius Julius Caesar. He was afflicted with a limp and slight deafness due to sickness as a child, causing his family to ostracize him. Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of other nobles during the many purges of Tiberius and Caligula. He wasn't seen as a serious threat. Claudius. AV Aureus. Rome mint. Struck AD 46-47. Good VF. Est $7500, sold for $20,000.

His survival led to his being declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination.

Obverse of this coin (50 CE–54 CE) portrays Claudius while the reverse portrays his wife Agrippina the Younger. Agrippina the Younger was Roman empress from AD 49 to 54, the fourth wife and niece of emperor Claudius, and the mother of Nero. Some blame her for the termination of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a broad-based conspiracy involving the Praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea and several senators. There is no evidence that Claudius had a hand in the assassination.

In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and declared him princeps. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in again and, in return, Claudius pardoned virtually all the assassins. He ruled well and left a large treasury behind. After his death in 54 aged 63, his grand-nephew, step-son, and adopted son Nero succeeded him as emperor.

Roman grave marker found in New Orleans yard

"To the Spirits of the Dead [Dis Manibus] for Sextus Congenius Verus, soldier of the praetorian fleet Misenensis, from the tribe of the Bessi [of Thrace]" "(who) lived 42 years (and) served 22 in the military, on the trireme [warship] Asclepius" "Atilius Carus and Vettius Longinus, his heirs, made (this) for him well deserving"

The Classis Misenensis (Fleet of Misenum) was the senior and most important imperial Roman navy fleet, established by Augustus in 27 BC to protect the Western Mediterranean and act as a central naval reserve. Based at Portus Julius near Misenum, it served the emperor directly, maintaining security and conducting transport duties.

The Roman grave marker found in the back yard of a New Orleans home was inherited and left there by the granddaughter of a US soldier who fought in Italy during the second world war. The headstone dedicated to circa second-century Roman sailor and military Sextus Congenius Verus had been stolen from the city museum of Civitavecchia, Italy. Erin Scott O’Brien told local media outlets that her grandfather, Charles Paddock Jr, kept the artifact in a display case at his home in New Orleans’ Gentilly neighborhood until his death in 1986.

Amazing historical artifacts

Roman iron slave collar. The inscription on the collar reads – “I have run away; hold me. When you have returned me to my master, Zoninus, you will receive a solidus" (gold coin) Blood Stained Cloak of Archduke Franz Ferdinand – Austrian Military Museum, Vienna. The murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand plunged the world into the first World War.

Broadsword of Oliver Cromwell c. 1650. This is one of the finest surviving swords of it's type, favored during the English Civil War (1642-51). The association of this sword with Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) is confirmed with the inscription and heraldic arms of England and Ireland on the blade.

Monomachus Crown – Hungarian National Museum, Budapest.

The crown is engraved Byzantine goldwork, decorated with cloisonné enamel. King Constantine Monomachus ruled the Byzantine kingdom from 1042 to 1055 with his wife Zoe and her sister Theodora. It was probably made in Constantinople in 1042. It was found in 1860 by a farmer while plowing. The objects passed to the local landowning nobility, who sold it in four transactions to the Hungarian National Museum between 1861 and 1870.

A Surviving Crate from the Boston Tea Party. The Boston Tea Party was the spark in the powder keg for the American War of Independence. The rebelling colonials climbed aboard a ship carrying England’s most valuable commodity – tea, and threw it overboard in an act of open defiance. Two crates survived.

The Axe of Pharoah Ahmes

A gold ceremonial axe was found among the treasures in the Tomb of Ahmes. It is funerary object that was not used in the life of the pharaoh. One of the sides of the blade is adorned with Nekhbet, vulture goddess and the guardian of Upper and Lower Egypt, and other deities who protect the pharaoh . The other side of the blade depicts the pharaoh tormenting one of his enemies as a symbol for sovereign power.

Corinthian helmet and skull from the Battle of Marathon 490 BCE. A pivotal moment in history, the battle of Marathon saw a smaller Greek force, mainly made up of Athenian troops, defeat an invading Persian army. A fierce and bloody battle, with numerous casualties this helmet (with skull inside) belonged to a Greek hoplite (soldier) who died during the fighting. The story of the man who ran back to Athens with the news of the victory became synonymous with the long distance running event in the Olympics.

Bullet that killed Lincoln. On April 14, 1865, five days after Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant in Appomattox, Virginia, actor John Wilkes Booth achieved historical immortality by firing the shot that claimed the life of Abraham Lincoln.