Aquila - SPQR

Jaws flapped about Trump's use of the Nazi eagle.

Students of history would recognize the Nazi eagle as that stolen from the Romans. The Nazi swastika was also hijacked from ancient sources.

The word swastika comes from the Sanskrit svastika, which means “good fortune” or “well-being."

An aquila, or eagle, was a prominent symbol used in ancient Rome, especially as the standard of a Roman legion. A legionary known as an aquilifer, or eagle-bearer, carried this standard. Each legion carried one eagle.

The eagle was very important to the Roman military, beyond merely being a symbol of a legion. A lost standard was considered an extremely grave event. The Roman military often went to great lengths to protect a standard and to recover it if lost. In the aftermath of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest the Romans spent decades trying to recover the lost standards of the three destroyed legions. SPQR stood for Senatus Populusque Romanus. The meaning was "The Senate and People of Rome". No legionary eagles are known to have survived.

The first circulating coins

Little is known about this electrum (natural alloy of gold and silver) coin.

Ionia, Circa 650-600 BC. Hekte (one-sixth stater)

It was minted in Ionia, somewhere in central Western Anatolia on the shores of the Aegean, but the precise city-state that produced it is unknown. It could have been minted in Miletus, a city often referred to as the origin of the modern world. This type likely represents the first true coins which circulated in everyday use. This type are small, 1/24th staters which represented about a day’s pay. Larger denominations are rare. Even fewer trites (one-third stater) are known, and only three staters have ever been found.

During the excavation of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus (present day Turkey near the Black Sea), a group of coins was found which are thought to be its 'foundation deposit', a custom that supposedly prevented the building from falling into ruin. The largest type in the group, a stater, had an inscription stating, 'I am the badge of Phanes'. It's meaning has been lost to antiquity. Coins revolutionized commerce, offering an accessible, neutral medium through which transactions could be processed quickly and fairly.

Golden Kingdoms: the Ancient Americas

Golden Kingdoms: Luxury and Legacy in the Ancient Americas, was on view at the Getty Center in 2018 and traced the development of gold working and other arts in the ancient Americas from 1000 BC to the arrival of Europeans in the early 16th century. The exhibit revealed the ways ancient Americans used metals, jade, shell, and feathers.

Octopus Frontlet, 300–600, Moche culture

Ear Ornament Depicting a Warrior, 640–680, Moche culture

It was a world where feathers were more valuable than gold. The rarest feathers, including the iridescent green feathers of the quetzal, were reserved for the Aztec emperor himself.

The exhibition featured more than 300 works from 53 lenders in 12 countries.

The MET exhibition followed a specific historical and geographical path. It traced the development of gold-working in the Americas from its origins in the Andes, to its expansion northward into Central America, and finally to Mexico, where gold-working comes into its own only after 1000 AD.

Jade plaque showing a seated king and palace attendant, 600–800 AD

Roman Solidus of Julian

A rare solidus of Julian, in G to VF condition, was struck in Constantinople and is estimated around $2,500. Introduced in the fourth century, the solidus replaced the aureus.

Julian II (360-363) was a successful military commander who waged one of the largest campaigns of Roman history against the Sassanid Empire. Julian the Apostate fell in the campaign against the Sassanids. With his death, the last hope for a renaissance of non-Christian faiths within the Roman Empire ended. Roman emperor Julian, reigning from 361 to 363, is notable for being the last pagan ruler of the Roman Empire. Christian writers referred to him as “Julian the Apostate.” Toleration for Christianity turned to suppression and persecution. Pagans were openly preferred for official appointments, and Christians were expelled from the army. Motivated by a desire for military glory Julian assembled the largest Roman army (65,000 strong and backed by a fleet) ever to head a campaign against Persia. The incompent Romans were routed. During a disastrous retreat from the walls of Ctesiphon, (below modern Baghdad), Julian was wounded by a spear thrown “no one knew whence” which pierced his liver. He died the next night at age 31, having been emperor for 20 months.

He spent the winter of 361/62 in Syria, where this aureus was struck. The coin anticipates future victories, the obverse bearing Julian's portrait, and the reverse depicting the emperor wearing a helmet, a tunic and carrying a trophy, whilst dragging a prisoner behind him by his hair.

The Hanksville-Burpee Quarry

Hanksville-Burpee Quarry is a paleontological excavation site near Hanksville, Utah. Scientists have found remains dating between 145 mya to 150 mya. The remains deposited in this location provide a unique opportunity for scientists to study the late Jurassic period.

The Hanksville dig site used to be an ancient river, and when dinosaurs died their carcasses washed down the river and deposited along its banks. Now some 147 my later scientists and volunteers from the Burpee Museum are unearthing them.

The fossils date to the late Jurassic period and are mostly made up of Sauropods, the long neck dinosaurs. A very rare armored dinosaur called Mymoorapelta was discovered, one of only 8 specimens ever found.

Mapungubwe: South Africa’s lost city of gold

A thousand years ago, Mapungubwe in Limpopo province was the center of the largest kingdom in Africa, where a sophisticated people traded gold and ivory with China, India and Egypt. The Iron Age site was declared a World Heritage site by Unesco in July 2003. Mapungubwe is an area of open savanah at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers and abutting the northern border of South Africa and the borders of Zimbabwe and Botswana. It thrived from around 1220 to 1300.

Twenty-three graves have been excavated so far with the bodies in three of these graves buried in the upright seated position associated with royalty, with a variety of gold and copper items, and exotic glass beads. The finds provide evidence of the early gold work and extensive wealth.

Mapungubwe’s fortune only lasted until about 1300, after which climate changes led to migrations north.

By 1300 AD, the region was the center of trade in southern Africa. Wealth came from ivory and later from gold deposits in Zimbabwe. The area was also agriculturally rich. The wealth in the area led to vast differences between rich and poor.

Golden rhino, Mapungubwe National Park

Gold of Croesus

Croesus is credited with issuing the first true gold coins with a standardized purity for general circulation.

Croesus was the king of Lydia from 560 to 547 BC until his defeat by the Persians. In Greek and Persian cultures the name of Croesus became a synonym for great wealth. His wealth came from the River Pactolus in which the King Midas washed his hands to rid himself of the 'Midas Touch'.

Around 550 BC Croesus paid for the construction of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Croesus is a legendary figure, but was an actual king who ruled from Sardis.

Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis

Croesus claimed to be happy. Solon disagreed saying no one could be said to have lived a happy life until death, as the living dealt with an unknowable future.

When Croesus learned of the Persians under Cyrus he sent to the Oracle at Delphi to divine whether he should wage war against the Persians. The oracle replied: "If Croesus goes to war he will destroy a great empire."

Tholos of Delphi

Pleased by this answer, Croesus met the Persian army at the Halys River. The battle was a draw. Cyrus pressed the attack, massacred Croesus’ cavalry by mounting his own on dromedaries (camels - whose scent frightened Lydian horses) and captured Croesus. Arm of a soldier, killed in the battle between Croesus and Cyrus. He died clutching a sling stone in his hand.

Croesus was dragged before Cyrus in chains. Cyrus ordered Croesus to be burned alive. Croesus called out for aid from Apollo. "O Solon! Solon! Solon!" Cyrus asked a translator what this meant and Croesus told the story of Solon’s visit, how no man can be counted happy until after his death, and how he was misled by the Oracle at Delphi. Cyrus was moved by this story and Croesus was released. He sent him to Delphi for an answer from the gods as to why he was betrayed. The answer came back that the Oracle had spoken only truth - a great empire had, in fact, been destroyed by Croesus – and it was not the fault of the gods if man misinterpreted the words.

Greek literature for generations held up Croesus as a symbol of great wealth but one whose gold could not assure him happiness. It was in ancient Sardis in the time of Croesus that the first coins of pure gold and pure silver were struck, an important step leading to a monetary economy.

Gold and silver are similar on a chemical level and are often found together forming an alloy known as electrum. Electrum wasn't always desirable for trade. As coinage gained popularity, a way to standardize the purity of gold and silver was needed. The first technique of gold parting was invented: salt cementation. Salt cementation involves adding gold/silver alloy, some burnt clay or old brick dust, salt, and urine to moisten it. The mixture is sealed and then heated, but not hot enough to melt the gold – less than 1000°C.

In about 24 hours, the gold will be nearly silver-free at around 90% purity or greater. When heated in the presence of silica and alumina (found in the clay/brick dust), salt breaks down to form hydrochloric acid and chlorine. The acidity in urine helps decomposition. The hydrochloric acid from this reaction interacts with the silver to create silver chloride, which separates from the gold. When that occurs, the reaction is volatile – which is why it's sealed. After removing the gold, one can convert the silver chloride back into silver, giving you two separate, purified samples of precious metals for coins. Scholars argue that the gold standard of Croesus was introduced in stages, designed to recall the circulating electrum staters. Once a sufficient number had been recalled, the new light stater appeared. Though the light stater was produced for a longer period than the heavy stater, the light stater is actually the rarer coin. This NGC Gem MS light stater sold in April 2018 for $180k.