Battle of Pharsalus

The Battle of Pharsalus was the decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War fought on 9 August 48 BC near Pharsalus, Central Greece.

Julius Caesar and his allies faced the command of Pompey. Pompey had the backing of a majority of Roman senators and his army significantly outnumbered the veteran Caesarian legions. According to Caesar, his own army included 22,000 Roman legionaries distributed throughout 80 cohorts (8 legions), with 1,000 Gallic and Germanic cavalry. Pompey was described as having 88 cohorts of Roman infantry, which at full strength would come to 44,000 men.

Pompey also had 5,000 to 7,000 cavalry, and thousands of archers, slingers and light infantrymen in general.

Pompey used his superior cavalry to try and crush Caesar's right flank. Caesar anticipated this and hid a select reserve of 3,000 close-quarters shock soldiers behind his lines. Caesar had studied Pompey's cavalry commander Titus Labienus. Labienus was a former top lieutenant of Julius Caesar who defected to Pompey at the start of the conflict.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106-48 BC) ‘Pompey the Great’

He commanded Pompey's large cavalry force. Caesar pulled 3,000 veterans from his third line and gave them an order that broke the rules of Roman warfare. Late Republican armies typically deployed in three lines. He ordered his 4th line men to hold their javelins like spears, and to not throw them. They were ordered to advance and drive them into the rider's faces. When the legionaries unexpectedly advanced and drove steel toward their faces, the riders flinched, wheeled, and ran. Their retreat collapsed the entire Pompey flank.

Titus Labienus

The fourth-line legionaries couldn't outpace the fleeing cavalry, but they were soon among the lightly armed archers and slingers – men without armour, trained and equipped only to fight at a distance. They were cut down in large numbers. The fourth line then halted, reformed, and with the 3 line executed a devastating right hook, plunging into the exposed left flank and rear of Pompey’s main line. Pompey took horse and fled. Elements of his broken army rallied over the next day or two, but they surrendered when Caesar offered generous terms. The Caesarian army lost only 200 killed, including 30 centurions, while the Pompeians lost 15,000 killed and wounded, while more than 24,000 surrendered.

Amanishakheto gold

Queen Amanishaketo ruled Nubia from 10 BCE to 1 CE. During her reign, she followed in the footsteps of former warrior Queen Amanirenas, leading troops with her bow in hand. When the Romans broke a peace treaty ensuring that they wouldn't invade Nubia, Amanishaketo led the nation’s defenses and warded off the Roman army sent by Augustus.

The Candaces of Meroe were the queens of the Kingdom of Kush. They ruled from the city of Meroe in what is now Sudan. Amanishakheto bore the titles “Qore” and “Kandake”, both “King” and “Queen mother”, meaning that she was a ruling queen, and not merely a consort. She was the successor to Queen Amanirenas. Queen Amanirenas is one of the most famous Meroitic queens because of her role in leading the Kushite army against the Romans from 25 BC to 22 BC. This war is largely responsible for halting Rome's southward expansion in Africa. Amanishaketo and her kingdom was extremely wealthy. Kush produced most of the gold in ancient Egypt. Rich grave goods found in her tomb are testaments to her great wealth.

Her grave treasures consisted of 10 bracelets, 9 shield rings, 67 signet rings, 2 bracelets and a large number of amulets, all created by the finest craftsmen of the Kingdom of Meroë.

Jewelry was stolen from the Queen's pyramid in 1834.

Como hoard

A hoard of gold coins was found in Como, about 50 km north of Milan in 2018. The hoard was discovered in a soapstone jar during excavation of the Cressoni Theatre. The haul was exactly 1,000 coins, most in as struck condition.

639 were struck in Mediolanum, (modern-day Milan) capital of the Western Empire.

They were minted between 395 and 472 A.D. and bear representations of eight emperors and four empresses. The fall of the Western Roman Empire is traditionally dated to the end of Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476 A.D. 744 of the coins were minted after 455, the last two decades of the empire. In addition to the coins, the treasure contains the raw materials for goldsmith work, including jewelry and a gold ingot.

In total the hoard contained 5 kg of gold, a huge amount of wealth.

Tyrian Purple

Tyrian purple is a pigment made from the mucus of 3 species of murex snail. In nature, the snails use the secretion as part of their predatory behavior to sedate prey. The snail also secretes mucus when it is attacked or antagonized. Production of Tyrian purple for use as a fabric dye began as early as 1200 BC by the Phoenicians. It continued with the Greeks and Romans until 1453 AD, with the fall of Constantinople. The pigment was expensive and time-consuming to produce, and items colored with it belonged to the elite. The pigment was the most expensive product in antiquity – worth more than three times its weight in gold, according to a Roman edict in 301 AD

The ultimate status symbol in Rome were robes dyed Tyrian purple. The colour, named for Tyre, its place of origin, was made from the Hexaplex trunculus snail. It took 13,000 snails to produce 1.4 grams of dye, enough for the trim on one garment. In Republican Rome only the wealthiest men, the equites, were allowed to wear it. In Imperial Rome it was restricted to the Emperor.

In 40 AD, the king of Mauretania was killed in Rome on orders of Caligula. Despite being a friend to the Romans, he caused a grave offence when he strode into an amphitheatre to watch games wearing a purple robe. Archaeological data from Tyre indicate that the snails were collected in large vats and left to decompose. This produced a hideous stench. Little is known about the mass production of the most highly prized "blackish clotted blood" colour. It may have been achieved by double-dipping the cloth, once in the indigo dye of H. trunculus and again in the purple-red dye of B. brandaris.

Tyrian purple may first have been used by the ancient Phoenicians as early as 1570 BC. The dye was prized in antiquity because the colour did not easily fade, but instead became brighter with weathering and sunlight. Phoenicia means 'land of purple.' True Tyrian purple, like most high-chroma pigments, cannot be accurately displayed on a computer display.

A Tunisian man has pieced together a secret linked to ancient emperors: how to make a prized purple dye using the guts of a sea snail. No historical documents clearly detail the production methods used. Production of the dye was among the main sources of wealth for the ancient Phoenicians, and then for the Carthaginian and Roman empires. Whole economies depended upon it's production. Even today the dye can cost $2,800 per gram from some European traders, and prices can reach up to $4,000. To obtain one gram of pure purple dye, 100 kg of the ill smelling murex need to be shelled.

Rarities at Klunker

Agrippina was one of the most influential women of the early Roman Empire. She was the offspring of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the victor of Actium, and Julia, daughter of Augustus. The husband chosen for her was Germanicus, who was supposed to become Augustus’ successor. They had nine children, including future Emperor Caligula. Agrippina was exiled in 29 AD and starved herself to death on Pandataria in 33 AD. Very fine+. Estimate: 25,000 euros. Hammer price: 120,000 euros.

Most aurei of Commodus are not really rare. Commodus as Hercules Romanus are extremely rare in top condition. Künker offered such a rarity and the result was 170,000 euros.

An aureus of Postumus. He came from Gaul and established his center of power in Cologne. Coins of Postumus are among the most beautiful pieces known from the time of the Barracks Emperors. The coin features Postumus and Heracles on the obverse. The reverse shows Victoria and Felicitas, representing Postumus’ military successes. The coin made 190,000 euro in part because of its pedigree. It's ownership can reliably be traced back to 1888.

Aureui of Pescennius Niger, 193-194, are impossibly rare in any condition. When they are extremely fine/very fine+ they will find many interested collectors. Estimate: 75,000 euros. Hammer price: 220,000 euros.

UK Spitalfields skeleton a high ranking Roman woman

A noble young Roman woman who lived in the fourth century was buried under what is now a market in London. She was in her early 20s and grew up in Italy. Her body was discovered in March 1999 under London's Spitalfields Market. The body was found in a decorated lead coffin that itself was placed inside a stone sarcophagus, indicating she was someone of great wealth and status.

She was embalmed with expensive Mediterranean and Middle Eastern oils and resins, and wrapped in a silk garment interwoven with fine gold thread. Her burial clothing was found to be purple — a hallmark strictly reserved for Roman elite.

Judaea Capta

Judaea Capta coinage was a series of coins issued by Vespasian to celebrate the capture of Judaea. Coins inscribed Ivdaea Capta (Judea Captured) were issued throughout the Empire. Coins were issued by Roman Emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian to celebrate the victory over the Jewish revolt and the destruction of Jerusalem's Second Temple in 70 CE.

Coins were struck for 25 years in gold, silver, and bronze.

The Great Revolt between the Romans and the Jews in 63 CE occured after Roman governor Gessius Florus looted the Second Temple. The First Jewish Revolt (66–73/74 CE), was the first of three major rebellions by Judaea against Rome. In 69 CE, Galba, the governor of Hispania (Spain), rebelled against Nero marking the start of the 'year of 4 emperors'.

After the capture of Jerusalem, the last rebels committed suicide at Masada.

Vespasian. AU Aureus (7.05 g), AD 69-79. ‘Judaea Capta’ type.

Winner Vespasian levied the punitive Fiscus Judaicus tax against all five million of his Jewish subjects. Vespasian then began striking vast numbers of Judaea Capta coins in all denominations. One element of the Judaea Capta imagery is a group of military trophies. Captured weapons and armor hung from a tree or post represents a military victory over the defeated enemy.

A rare shekel produced in Year 4 plus the ultimate rarity, a Year 5 shekel. The Second Revolt was circa 132-135 CE.

Judaea Capta gold aureus features the inscription DE IVDAEIS (Latin - "concerning the Jews") Hybrid features the strange legend IVDAEA AUGUST.

Titus, AD 79-81. Gold Aureus. A true rarity, the date is early in AD 70, which places it before or during the siege of Jerusalem (May-September 70). Titus as Caesar features the legend IVDAE DEVICTA, or “Judea is conquered,” It realized $956,000 in 2011. The undated coin is the only known example with a complete inscription on the shield.

Galba ruled for eight months from AD 68 to 69. His aureus is one of the great rarities of Roman coins. This example, near XF, made £52,000.

Roman military victories on coins

Rome’s territorial expansion was synonymous with military conquest. Coins served as both the messenger and message in ancient Rome.

AEGVPTO CAPTA (Egypt Captured) was a series of coins struck in 28-27 BCE by Octavian. The first Roman coins explicitly glorifying conquest were a novelty for the time.

The Nile crocodile was a symbol of ancient Egypt. The dupondius of Nimes continued to be struck for several decades, from 29 BCE up to 10 CE. The obverse portrays Augustus and Marcus Agrippa. The reverse is a crocodile chained to a palm tree.

The dupondius was a low value copper coin, used in everyday transactions.

DACIA CAPTA (Dacia Captured). Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent. Trajan’s campaign over the Danube brought Rome both new territory and the gold mines of Dacia. The conquest of rich Dacia (101-102 and 105-106 CE) was the last major territorial addition of the Empire.

Parthia Capta. Rome fought many wars against the Parthian Empire but had few triumps. One of the few Roman leaders to humiliate the East was Emperor Trajan. His 115-117 CE campaign was celebrated with PARTHIA CAPTA (Parthia Conquered) coinage.

The Armenia Capta gold aureus of Lucius Verus, issued in A.D. 163 in Rome made 14,000 Swiss francs ($13,963 U.S.) in 2019 against an estimate of 7,500 francs. In 163, the Roman general Marcus Statius Priscus invaded Armenia and captured the capital Artaxata. The second coin was issued in Rome, sometime in early 218. It features a bust of Macrinus on the obverse, and the reverse shows Victory seated. The reverse proclaims a victory over the Parthians, which is ironic, since Macrinus agreed to a humiliating peace treaty. 20,000 Swiss francs ($19,946 U.S.) against an estimate of 5,000 francs.

Lost Roman city of Neapolis

In 2017, archaeologists confirmed the discovery of the lost Roman city of Neapolis off the coast of Nabeul, in northeast Tunisia

The lost Roman city was found in the waters of northeast Tunisia in 2017. The find confirmed an old theory that the settlement was swallowed up by a colossal tsunami 1,600 years ago. Divers discovered the remains of streets, monuments, and around 100 tanks used to store garum, a fermented fish sauce sometimes called 'Rome’s ketchup'.

On the morning of July 21, 365 CE, the Mediterranean was rocked by an earthquake with a magnitude of 8.5. The epicenter was in Crete, where most towns were destroyed. Large portions of Greece, Cyprus, Sicily, Spain, and North Africa suffered.

The earthquake caused an uplift of nine metres of the island of Crete.

Neapolis was once the largest centre in the Roman world for the production of garum.

See ----- Pompeii reveals garum.